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A^..csision No, 351/61,
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AFRICAN HANDBOOKS: 8
Committee on African Studies, University of Pennsylvania
DRUG PLANTS
OF
AFRICA
By
Thomas S. Githcns, M.D.
UNivp:RsrrY of pennsyiaania press
THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM
Philadelphia
19 4 9
Copyright 1949
UNIVERSITY
PENNSYLVANIA PRESS
Manufactured in
by Lancaster
le United States of America
"^ress, Inc,, Lancaster, Pa,
LONDON
GEOFFREY CUMBERLEGE
OXFOBTO UNIVERSITY PRESS
PREFACE
Periodically in the course of development of most fields of hu¬
man endeavor, there accumulates such a vast body of informa¬
tion that the need arises for someone to undertake the task of
collating and synthesizing it. An example of this trend and
the manner in which the need has been met is furnished by the
subject matter of this volume.
For countless generations the inhabitants of Africa have devel¬
oped a store of empirical information—and misinformation—con¬
cerning the therapeutic values of their native plants. During
the past century much of this information has been scrutinized
in the light of modern chemistry and physiology. In still more
recent times there have appeared numerous books and articles
dealing with special categories of drug plants or with the plants
of a particular country or a restricted portion of the continent.
Heretofore there has been no comprehensive attempt to com¬
pile the results of these individual studies or to evaluate the
contribution which Africa has made to our understanding of the
poisonous or curative properties of plants.
The author of this handbook is eminently well qualified by
training and experience for the task in hand. For nine years
he was a member of the Department of Physiology and Pharma¬
cology of the Rockefeller Institute, and for nearly a quarter of
a century he served as Chief Pharmacist, first of the H. K. Mul-
ford Company, later the Sharp and Dohme Company at Glen-
olden, Pennsylvania. To a broad knowledge of the plant re¬
sources of Africa he brings a keen insight of the pharmaceutical
properties of plants. Dr. Githens is to be congratulated on
having had the courage to approach the task of sifting and col¬
lating a prodigious amount of material, checking inconsistencies,
eliminating duplications, and presenting us with a useful ac¬
count of the medicinal plants of the Dark Continent.
John M. Fogg, Jr.
Professor of Botany
University of Pennsylvania
V
CONTENTS
Chapter
Preface, by John M. Fogg, Jr, v
I Introduction 1
II The Chemical Basis for the Use of Drug Plants 5
III Utilization of Drug Plants 19
Note on Export of Plant Drugs from Africa 41
Tables
Plant Drugs Exported:
From Africa 42
Into the United States 45
Into England 45
Generic Synonyms 46
Definitions of Medical Terms 49
Chemical Basis of Drug Action
Plants Containing:
Tannins 50
Saponins 52
Cardiac Glucosides 52
Bitter Principles 53
Alkaloids 55
Essential Oils 57
Resins 59
Utilization of Drug Plants
Key to Abbreviations 61
Plants Having Other Commercial Uses 62
Plants Cultivated in Africa 66
Plants Used As Poisons 70
Plants of Probable Value 75
Plants of Doubtful Value 111
Selected Bibliography 123
vii
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
The study of the therapeutic uses of plants by primitive people
who are ignorant of the nature and causes of bodily ailments is
both a fascinating and an extremely difficult task. The reason
some plants come to be selected by the tribal medicine men,
while others apparently more worthy of notice are neglected, is
not easy to determine. As primitive people lack criteria by
which the effect of drugs on the body can be studied, it is but
natural that the plants growing wild in any locality should be
tested on the sick, and if the patient should happen to improve,
the drug is used again. In this way a very large number of
plants, most of which have little or no special virtue, will come
to be used by one tribe or another, and a complete list of plants
used as drugs may include almost all the common plants of the
vicinity. Most Americans know that a great many plants were
so used by the American Indians and were adopted from them
by the early settlers who could not obtain the drugs to which
they had been accustomed in Europe. Clinical indications for
many of these plants are described in detail in the early works
on therapeutics published in this country, but very few are used
as medicines today.
The reason for the use of some plants is evident. Members
of the tribe observe that animals and men feeding on certain
plants suffer disturbing or even fatal reactions and such are
early recognized as poisons and often are employed as such. In
some cases therapeutic virtues are found in doses too small to
be dangerous, for example when these merely induce vomiting
or purging. Plant parts causing irritation or inflammation on
contact with the skin are soon identified and may be used as
counterirritants to relieve deep-seated pain.
Often a strong odor or a bitter or pungent taste attracts atten¬
tion. Plants having such are used both as flavors and as medi¬
cines. Thus the spices are found to relieve intestinal colic, and
experience shows that certain aromatic plants as well as the fra¬
grant balsams and the astringent barks are of value as wound
dressings. Plants which induce vomiting or purging are used
1
2
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
in treating food poisoning and indigestion, and others, which
cause sweating, are found to reduce fever.
Apart from such usages based on the observation of definite
effects, the employment of plants as medicaments is mostly em¬
pirical and is frequently infused with a strong element of magic.
The belief in magic and witchcraft is universal among primi¬
tive people, and the medicine men who are employed to treat
the sick and injured are commonly the same individuals who
deal in magical charms and perform special rites to assure good
crops, avoid threatened calamities, and promote recovery from
adversity and illness brought on by offenses against the tribal
gods or by the malevolence of witches or evil-minded neighbors.
Most illnesses are considered to be at least partly due to such
non-material influences, and magical charms designed to over¬
come them or to cast out evil spirits are inextricably woven with
the use of methods designed to meet more practical ends. It is
often impossible to determine whether a drug or a constituent
of a mixture employed to combat a given symptom is used be¬
cause of previous observation of beneficial action or because of
its supposed magical powers.
The association of magic with medicine is well illustrated by
the doctrine of “signatures'’ which persisted in this country and
England to within a century. This taught that nature had pro¬
vided a vegetable remedy for every ailment and had indicated by
evident signs how each plant was to be used. Thus a plant like
hepatica, with leaves lobed like the liver, was useful in disease
of that organ; a plant with heart-shaped leaves was of value in
cardiac disturbances. Saxifrage, which grows among broken
rocks and was supposed to disintegrate them, would have a
similar action on stones in the bladder. Such doctrines are evi¬
dently closely related to the African Natives’ administration of
owl’s feathers to make the disease fly silently away, or of plants
with swollen or bulbous roots to check emaciation.
The use of plant drugs by the Native tribes of Africa has fol¬
lowed the practices universal among primitive people and, for
the reasons given, a very large number of plants are used as
medicines by one tribe or another, over fourteen hundred spe¬
cies being included in the present study. As it would be quite
impossible in the scope of a handbook to give each species a
complete description, the most essential data in regard to each
species are presented in the form of tables, more detailed de¬
scriptions being reserved for a few of the more important genera.
Many of the plants are used for the same purposes as the
INTRODUCTION
3
same, or a closely related, species is used in scientific medicine,
while an even larger number of evident value are almost entirely
unknown outside of their native land and might with advantage
be introduced into Western medicine. Some, as Strophanthus
and Strychnos, although recognized as valuable medicines by sci¬
entific physicians, are used only as poisons by the Natives (page
24). These are included under ''Drug Plants Used as Poisons''
(Table 13).
A great many African drug plants have been studied chemi¬
cally and physiologically, and their action on the animal body
has confirmed their use by the Natives, or physiologically active
components have been separated. There has been little clinical
trial of these drugs by white doctors in Africa except among the
Afrikanders. All such plants are listed as “Native Drug Plants
of Probable Value" (Table 14).
Other plants valued by Native medicine men have been found
inert by physiologic tests and contain no active constituents.
Their use would seem to be based on faulty observation or pos¬
sible magical association. Such plants are treated as “Native
Drug Plants of Doubtful Value" (Table 15).
In spite of contact with medical missionaries and public health
agencies, the medical practice of the Natives of most parts of
Africa seems to have undergone little change, although plants
introduced and now growing wild are used with the indigenous
flora. Among the Mediterranean peoples of North Africa,
where contact with Europe and Asia has existed from time im¬
memorial and where the population is largely not Negroid in
character, drugs and methods of treatment introduced from other
regions assume great importance. The Arabs, Moors, and other
races cultivate many drugs which are not natives of Africa or
have become rare as wild plants. The more important of these
are listed as “Cultivated Plants" (Tables 11, 12). Arab medi¬
cine is a varied combination of ancient Arab customs, modern
European medicine, and native African usages. Their most im¬
portant drugs, such as opium, cannabis, digitalis, and squill, are
not used at all by the local Negro medicine men.
To avoid misunderstanding in the identification of plants in
the ensuing pages, these are almost always referred to by their
scientific names. As these are based on the Index Kewensis,
authorities for species names seems unnecessary. These names
are, however, not universally used, and to facilitate comparison
with the works of other authors a table of synonyms of generic
names is given (page 46). English names are employed only
4
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
when their application is clear. Such names are often ambigu¬
ous, many species, for example, are referred to as “thorn bush“ or
“thorn tree“; several of the Amaryllids are known as Natal lily;
many pungent fruits are termed African pepper, etc. Native
African and Arab names are omitted entirely, as these vary from
one tribe to another and would apply only to a limited area.
Even in the same tribe, several plants used for the same purpose
but totally unrelated botanically are often called by the same
name, so that a dictionary would be required to make the ref¬
erences complete.
As the physiologic action and medicinal properties of plants
depend largely on the nature of their chemical components, it is
advisable, for the benefit of those who are not familiar with
plant chemistry, to describe those constituents on which drug
activity depends. Chapter II will deal with the plants from this
point of view, while Chapter III will present the use to which
the various drugs are put by the African Natives. For readers
who are not familiar with medical terms, a list of these with
definitions will be found on page 49.
Many books and articles dealing with the drug plants of single
colonies or special regions of Africa have been published, as will
be seen by reference to the Bibliography at the end of this book.
From these publications the author has derived most of the in¬
formation in this Handbook. As far as he is aware, however,
this is the first attempt to gather the medical botany of the en¬
tire continent into one volume. An attempt has been made to
include all plants used extensively as medicines or poisons by
any of the Native tribes, and detailed description has been sacri¬
ficed for completeness of coverage.
Much of the literary material referred to is not readily ob¬
tainable and it is hoped that this Handbook will stimulate in¬
terest in the little-known subject of African drug plants by pre¬
senting a general picture of their great variety and importance.
Chapter II
THE CHEMICAL BASIS FOR THE USE
OF DRUG PLANTS
The therapeutic or medicinal activity of plants usually depends
on the presence of what are known as “active principles/' and
some understanding of these is necessary in any study of the ac¬
tions and uses of plants and plant parts as drugs. The chem¬
istry of plants differs fundamentally from that of animals in one
respect. In the chemistry and metabolism of animals a great
similarity is observed among all those above the worms. All
have muscles, fat, and skin of essentially similar character, all
have digestive systems with similar digestive secretions, livers
secreting bile, blood with red and white cells, etc. All of the
bodily constituents have definite and well-known functions, and
almost all of them are much the same in all higher forms. Char¬
acteristic individual constituents, such as the odorous secretions
of the skunk and the venoms of poisonous snakes, are few in
number. Among plants, on the contrary, such peculiar and
characteristic constituents often dominate the chemical picture.
All plants contain a structural framework based on cellulose and
lignin, the vital cells contain protoplasm, such nutrients as
sugars, starches, inulins, and chlorophyll which helps to form
them. Most plants exhibit in addition substances having indi¬
vidual properties, and often having no known relation to the
metabolism or functions of the organism as a whole, and differ¬
ing completely from one plant to another. When such sub¬
stances exert an influence on the structure or function of the
animal body they are known as “active principles," and it is on
the presence of such principles that the therapeutic value of
plants depends. These principles vary widely in chemical com¬
position, and many of them are useful in industry, for example
the tannins^ used in the preparation of leather; dyestuffs, such
as indigo; fixed oils, used for lubrication; and volatile oils, val¬
ued by the cosmetic industry.
The principles of chief interest in medicine may be classified
into several groups according to their chemical nature and their
action on the animal body. Three of these groups comprise
5
6
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
constituents related to the three classes of nutrients—carbohy¬
drates, fats and proteins—and serve as reserve food for the plants.
In other groups the relation to the plant economy is obscure.
Tannins, for example, deposited in the bark can hardly take
any active part in the metabolic functions of a tree. The value
to the plant of alkaloids, glucosides, and essential oils is also
obscure.
Mucilages and Gums
These are non-nitrogenous compounds related to the carbo¬
hydrates and somewhat resembling starches in physical char¬
acter. They are soluble in, or miscible with, water; they are
bland and unirritating; they are not readily absorbed by the
skin or by mucous membranes, and are not attacked by the
digestive ferments. Their action is wholly local, being soothing,
protective, and demulcent when applied or swallowed. Many of
them may be obtained, often in a relatively pure state, as exu¬
dates from incisions in the bark of trees, while others are used
as watery extracts of the plant or by applying the crushed leaves
containing them.
The most important of the exudates is gum arabic, a product
of several species of Acacia. This gum differs from most plant
products in that it is not produced by the normal plant, but is
induced by the action of a special microbe, Bacterium acaciae,
on the trunk where the bark is injured or denuded. As all
acacias are attacked by the same organism, the gum collected
from different species is essentially similar. Gum arabic is not
only used extensively by the whites and Natives in Africa, but
is a very important article of export. Indian gum, which re¬
sembles gum arabic, is collected from Anogeissus latifolius, which
has been introduced into the French colonies of West Africa.
African tragacanth, from incisions in the bark of Sterculia; sarco-
collin, which exudes from the bark of Penaea trees; and a gum
from cuts in the unripe capsules of Asphodelus microcarpus are
used for local applications. Many fruits contain gums, and
largely through their presence act as laxatives or serve as emol¬
lient dressings. Those of several African trees, including the
tamarind, mango, jujube, Ximenia, and several kinds of fig are
examples.
The presence of mucilages characterizes most of the Malvaceae,
and several species of mallow (Malva) and of marshmallow {Hi¬
biscus) yield extracts from leaves and fruits which serve to soothe
irritated mucous membranes of the throat and digestive tract, or
CHEMICAL BASIS OF DRUG PLANTS
7
inflamed and painful skin. In North Africa, soothing prepara¬
tions are also made from the leaves of borage and the root of the
sweet flag (Acorns calamus), both of which are used similarly in
Europe. Several species of Alysicarpus, Commelina, Echinops,
Grewia, and Portulaca yield gums or mucilages and are used
topically and internally.
Fixed Oils or Fats
The fixed oils are so called because, in contrast to the volatile
or essential oils, they do not distill at the temperature of boiling
water. Chemically they consist of three molecules of fatty acid
which form a sort of salt or ester with one molecule of glycerin.
Most of these oils are edible, including palm oil, peanut oil, oil
of sesame, Kenya butter (Pentadesma), and olive oil. These, as
well as the fixed oils from Balanites (zachun oil), Canarium, Tri-
chilia, and Anona, are used topically as emollients and ointment
bases.
A few fixed oils, mostly characterized by strongly unsaturated
fatty acids, are not readily digested or absorbed. Several such
expressed from the seed of Euphorbiaceae act as cathartics. Of
these the best known is castor oil (Ricinus) which acts as a mild
laxative and can also be used as an emollient. Croton oil, how¬
ever, acts as a drastic purge and can blister the skin. Physic nuts
(Jatropha curcas) contain a similar oil. It is of interest to note
that all three of these oils contain toxalbumins which must be
destroyed by heat and removed before the oil is fit for use. Ir¬
ritant and cathartic fixed oils are also obtained from Excoecaria
and Ximenia.
Other fixed oils, found to be toxic to lower forms of animal
life, are employed by Native tribes as antiparasitics and anthel¬
mintics. Among these are oil of touloucuna {Carapa procera),
martosa oil (Melia), and custard apple oil (Anona), In several
instances the fixed oil is associated with a volatile oil or resin,
and the mixture, as found in Canarium and Moringa, has com¬
bined emollient and counterirritant action.
An oil related to chaulmoogra oil is present in several species
of Oncoba and is claimed to be likewise of value in leprosy.
Toxalbumins
These poisonous proteins are irritant substances commonly
found only, or chiefly in the seed, which induce inflammation
when applied to mucous membranes, such as those of the eye
8
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
or nose, and violent emesis and purgation when swallowed, as
they are not digested or rendered inactive by the digestive juices.
Several of these seeds, either as powder or as extracts, are applied
to sluggish ulcers and even to congested eyes to induce an in¬
flammatory reaction followed by healing. The seed of jequirity
bean (Abrus precatorius), Adenia venenata^ and related species
of Modecca, Cassia abusus, and several crotons are used in this
way. Less common is their use as ordeal, homicidal, or animal
poisons. Cucumis africanus is thus employed in Tanganyika,
Phyllanthus engleri in North Rhodesia, Modecca digitata in
South Africa, and jequirity bean in India.^ Several of these
seeds have been used as anthelmintics, but the effective dose
is so close to the toxic dose that the practice is not safe. It is
thought, however, that the effectiveness of certain established
taenicides, such as pumpkin seed, may depend on proteins.
The presence of toxalbumins in castor oil, croton oil and jatro-
pha oil has been referred to. The anthelmintic action of the
latex of the papaw (Carica) is supposed to depend on a toxic
protein as does the emetic action of Ophiocaulon.
Glucosides
The glucosides derive their name from the presence in the
molecule of a hexose sugar, usually glucose, more rarely rham-
nose or another. This can be split off by acids giving rise to
bodies known as “genins,*’ which are usually non-nitrogenous,
more or less complex ring structures. They usually have the
same general action as the original glucoside, but reduced or
modified. In some instances, only the genin is active. Certain
plant constituents, for example gallic acid and prussic acid, are
usually present in glucosidic form, although also occurring in a
free state. Such constituents will be considered with the cor¬
responding glucosides. As the glucosides do not have any par¬
ticular type of action, they will be taken up under separate
headings.
Tannins. The tannins are glucosides of gallic or protocate-
chuic acids. (So-called tannic acid is a glucose ester of gallic
acid.) They, as well as their genins, have the property of pre¬
cipitating proteins and mucus and constricting blood vessels.
This astringent action gives them value in controlling hemor¬
rhage, checking diarrhea, and as applications to wounds, ulcers,
and deep burns, which are thereby covered with an impervious
1 See page 24.
CHEMICAL BASIS OF DRUG PLANTS
9
protective coating. Commercially they are employed in tanning
leather, as mordants in dyeing, etc. They are among the most
abundant of the active principles and are present in most trees
and shrubs and in many herbs. In woody plants they are found
chiefly in the bark, but abound also in roots, leaves, nuts, and
unripe fruits. They are frequently associated with other prin¬
ciples. The application of particular tannins depends largely
on their solubility in water and the readiness with which the
more soluble genins are yielded on contact with the acid gastric
juice. Thus the tannin of oak galls, being rather soluble, is of
value for topical applications, but its effect in the lower bowel
is limited. Kino, the tannin of Pterocarpus, is not readily ab¬
sorbed and is of greater value in diarrhea and dysentery. Most
of the tannin drugs are used by the African Natives both topi¬
cally and internally. Hot or cold water extracts are usually ad¬
ministered for diarrhea, and similar extracts may be applied to
wounds or ulcers, but more often the powdered root or bark or
the crushed leaves are used as a dry dressing. Cold water ex¬
tracts of the milder tannins are applied to the eyes to reduce
congestion and relieve inflammation. The bark of many trees
serves as a source of tannin. Among the more important of
these are the thorn trees {Acacia), the mahogany tree (Diospyros
melanoxylon), the cucumber trees {Kigelia), the mango {Mangi-
fera indica), the cayor apples {Parinarium), the mangrove {Rhizo-
phora mangle), the African tulip tree (Spathodea), and the artar
root (Xanthoxylum senegalense). Several of these are or have
been articles of export as are kino, the dried sap of Pterocarpus
erinaceus, which grows on the west coast from Senegal to An¬
gola, and nut galls, a globular swelling formed by the action of
the gall fly on twigs of the gall oak {Quercus infectoria) which is
common in certain parts of the Mediterranean region.
Several plants containing tannins are used by the Natives as
vermifuges, but most of these contain other principles to which
the effect is probably partly due. Although only a small frac¬
tion of the gallic acid split oft from tannins is excreted by the
kidneys, several tannin drugs are said to be of value in infec¬
tions of the urinary tract.
Saponins. The saponins constitute a very large and diverse
group of glucosides which have the property of causing foam¬
ing when added to water. They find an extensive use in sham¬
poos, tooth pastes, and similar cosmetic preparations. Some
have no marked action on the body, but many of them induce
10
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
nausea or vomiting. This is accompanied by increased secre¬
tion in the respiratory passages and greater fluidity of the mucus,
leading to loosening of coughs or expectorant action. The nau¬
sea is often accompanied by sweating, leading to lowering of
febrile temperature. Saponins are therefore used as emetics, ex¬
pectorants, and febrifuges. Many saponins act on the gills of
fish and thus interfere with respiration and are therefore used
as fish poisons. A stream is dammed up and the crushed drug
swished through the water until enough is dissolved to asphyxi¬
ate the fish, which rise to the surface and are easily caught. The
flesh of the fish is, of course, not affected. A similar effect is pro¬
duced on the skin of intestinal worms, and saponins may be ef¬
fective as vermifuges. The foaming character also permits their
use in shampoos to asphyxiate head lice and other skin parasites.
A few saponins are locally irritant and act as purgatives. It is
interesting to note, in view of the reputed virtue of the roots of
Smilax officinalis as a remedy for syphilis in America, that the
root of a related species, S. kraussiana, is used for the same pur¬
pose by the Natives of the Congo. Most saponins are not freely
absorbed from the intestines, but some which are, form a special
class termed sapotoxins. These interfere with cellular respira¬
tion throughout the body, causing death by weakening all vital
functions. Sapotoxins are found in species of Albizzia, Bala-
nites, Entada, Phytolacca, Randia, and Tephrosia,
Cardiac Glucosides. This is a small but very important
group of drugs which have a so-called digitalis action on the
heart, as evidenced by loss of coordination in the beats of the
different chambers, leading, in poisoning, to slowing of the heart
followed by great irregularity and eventual stoppage.'^ Glu¬
cosides of this type are found in several African genera. The
poisonous properties of most of these plants are recognized by
the Natives, who have used them from ancient times as arrow
poisons and ordeal poisons. Their usefulness as heart remedies,
which has led to the introduction of several of them into West¬
ern medicine, is hardly known to the Native medicine men.
Those used chiefly as arrow poisons include several species of
Acokanthera, Adenium, Strophanthus, Cerbera (Tanghinia), Ne-
rium, Periploca, and Antiaris. All but the last of these are re¬
lated genera of the Apocynaceae. Used chiefly as ordeal poisons
are two of the L.eg}iminosae—Erythrophleum and Gleditschia
2 The first sign of poisoning is usually nausea, which leads to the use of
cardiac glucosides as emetics and expectorants.
CHEMICAL BASIS OF DRUG PLANTS
11
(formerly Eryrthrophleum), Other plants in which cardiac glu-
cosides have been found do not seem to be used as poisons. As
with other toxic plants, several of these are employed both topi¬
cally and internally in snake bite, perhaps on the theory that two
poisons will counteract each other. This usage may be regarded
as at least partly magic. Species of Xysmalobium and of Gom-
phocarpus, which contain a similar glucoside, but are not very
toxic, are used as tonics in heart weakness and dropsy, and cer¬
tain species of Digitalis, Scilla, and Urginea are gathered for ex¬
port in North Africa and find limited employment, chiefly
among the Arabs.
Anthelmintic Glucosides. This small but valuable group
contains glucosides with phloroglucin or a related compound as
the genin. All of them have the power to kill or expel tape¬
worms, and they are used for this purpose by the Natives. Sev¬
eral of them are ferns, including Aspidium, Cheilanthes, Dryop-
teris, Nephrodium, and Pellaea. A'hret—Embelia, Maesa, and
-belong to the Myrsinaceae. Several of these show glu-
coside-resin combinations, as do species of Albizzia, Brayera,
Celosia, Jasminum, Mallotus, Phytolacca, and Rumex. All of
these are taeniacides, and in all the action may be partly or
chiefly due to the resin.
Cyanogen Glucosides. Several glucosides on contact with
water yield cyanides, having the odor of bitter almonds. The
glucoside Amygdalin is present in bitter almond {Prunus amyg¬
dala amara), and in many other Rosaceae, as well as in certain
varieties of lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus). Related compounds
are present in the root of Passiflora quadrangular is and in spe¬
cies of Dichapetalum which are used as arrow poisons.
Salicylic Glucosides. Salicin, yielding salicylic acid and of
value in rheumatism, is the active agent in the twigs of the
African willow (Salix capensis), which is used for the treatment
of rheumatism by Natives all over the continent. Salicin is also
present in the leaves of Leucadendron concinnum of South Af¬
rica, employed as a febrifuge, and in those of Alsodeia monticola,
used for treating syphilis in the Cameroon.
Glucosidic Dyes. Dyestuffs, chiefly quercetin and alizarin,
are present in several African drugs, but probably take no part
in their action. Among them are species of Curcuma, Olden-
landia, Indigofera, Paeonia, Morinda, Jasminum, Rubia, Ruta,
and Vitex.
Neurotoxic Glucosides. In contrast to the alkaloids, very
few glucosides exert a marked influence on the central nervous
12
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
system, Kellin, the glucoside of toothache wort (Ammi vis-
naga), is narcotic, and its soothing quality, together with the ac¬
tion of a carminative oil, leads to use of the drug to relieve
renal and intestinal colic and other pains.
Vernonin, from batiator root (Vernonia nigritiana), has a
paralysant action on the motor centers as well as a digitalis ac¬
tion on the heart, but this action does not influence its use.
Certain species of Gomphocarpus are said to contain cynancho-
toxin, which causes cerebral convulsions, but the therapeutic
action depends on uzarin, a cardiac glucoside. Byrsocarpus ori-
entalis of Madagascar, which appears to be used only as a poison,
also contains a convulsant glucoside. Toxic glucosides are also
reported in species of Cynanchum, Funtumia and Xanthoxylum.
Alkaloids
These compounds derive their name from the fact that, like
alkalis, they combine with acids to form salt-like compounds.
They resemble ammonia in containing trivalent nitrogen atoms
which become pentavalent in the presence of acids, the other
valencies combining with the acid radicle. The more active
alkaloids are among the most potent vegetable poisons, but the
greater number, although having some evident effect on the
body, can be taken in relatively large dose without danger.
Plants or drugs representing the more active alkaloids are used
by the African Natives as poisons more than they are as drugs.
The valuable tonic action of small doses of nux vomica (Strych-
nos) which contains the alkaloid strychnine does not seem to
have been recognized by the medicine men, and although glau¬
coma is not uncommon in Africa, calabar bean (Physostigma),
which is one of the most valued remedies for this condition, is
not thus used by Natives, if indeed they recognize its symptoms.
Many drugs contain alkaloids in association with another prin¬
ciple to which their effectiveness in certain conditions is to be
ascribed, for example the control of diarrhea in drugs with tan¬
nins. In most cases, however, the alkaloid is the chief principle.
The more toxic alkaloids generally exert their chief action on
the nerve centers or on the sympathetic nervous system, and their
use by the Natives reflects these actions. Several act as hypnotics
or narcotics, for example those of opium (Papaver somniferum),
henbane (Hyoscyamus), and thorn apple (Datura), and may be
used as intoxicants as well as for the relief of pain and insomnia.
Others, such as Cola and Corynanthe, stimulate the brain or
spinal cord and relieve depressed nervous states. This effect is
CHEMICAL BASIS OF DRUG PLANTS
13
not readily distinguished from a general tonic action. More
often, however, the chief effect of alkaloids is on the nervous
control of the viscera, and the stimulating or quieting effect on
the bowel movements of such plant drugs as Boerhaavia and
Papaver is utilized in the treatment of sluggishness or diarrhea.
A dilating action on the bronchi or stimulation of bronchial
secretions makes certain alkaloids useful as antiasthmatics or as
expectorants (Anacyclus, Hyoscyamus); others are supposed to
increase the flow of bile (Lantana) or to regulate the functions
of the uterus, emmenagogue action (Withania), The toxic ac¬
tion of alkaloidal drugs is availed of in their use as vermifuges
{Punica, Spigelia), arrow poisons {Haemanthus, Strychnos), fish
poisons {Dioscorea, Sophora), and for the destruction of lice and
other parasites {Delphinium, Gloriosa). Toxic alkaloidal plants
are also used in the treatment of snake bite (Gassythia, Clivia),
perhaps with the idea of driving out one poison with another,
which, as already mentioned, is a common practice in magical
therapy. Of the genera containing toxic alkaloids, Strychnos
deserves special mention because while most of the species (S.
icaja, S. kipapa) contain the convulsant strychnine, a few (S.
Henningsii) contain paralysant alkaloids like curare, and others
(S, innocua) contain no toxic principles. Several of the drugs
containing narcotic alkaloids are employed as soothing dressings
(Datura, Hyoscyamus), while others with irritant alkaloids are
applied to induce healing (Buphane, Sarcocephalus).
A number of the less toxic alkaloids, such as sparteine and caf¬
feine (Anagyris, Cola), augment the renal secretion either by in¬
creasing the blood flow through the kidneys or by a more direct
action and are therefore used as diuretics and in the treatment
of dropsy. Several alkaloids (Gaertnera, Khaya) are believed to
reduce febrile temperatures, and to some of these (Corynanthe,
Crossopteryx) is ascribed an antiperiodic action on malaria, like
that of quinine.
The value of these drugs in the specific treatment of other in¬
fections is not readily explained, but they are used in such con¬
ditions as rheumatism (Alstonia), gonorrhea (Artabotrys), leprosy
(Crinum and other Amaryllidaceae) and even anthrax (Cluytia),
Most of the alkaloids have a bitter taste, and many of them
have little or no effect on the bodily functions and may be classed
with the simple bitters, having only the tonic effect relevant to
increased appetite and improved digestion (Mimosa, Trigonella),
A special type of alkaloid known as piperine is the pungent prin¬
ciple of the seed of black pepper (Piper), Melagueta pepper
14
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
(Amomum), and Guinea pepper (Xylopia), which act in the same
manner.
Essential Oils
Essential oils are volatile and commonly odorous liquids to
which the scents of flowers and plants are commonly due.
Chemically they are usually non-nitrogenous principles contain¬
ing a six-carbon ring. Most of them are liquid, but a few, such
as camphor, thymol, and menthol, are solids. Resins and ter-
penes are more complex condensation products of similar rings.
Most of the essential oils have a pleasant odor and are widely
used as flavors. Anise, allspice, dill, and others are cultivated
solely for this purpose. Many of the essential oils have the
power to regulate the intestinal movements, preventing or con¬
trolling violent contractions and aiding the ordered flow of the
food through the bowel. This “carminative” action leads to the
widespread use of plants containing them as condiments with
food and to relieve colicky pain. A similar action on the uterus
renders them of value as emmenagogues.
Several of the oils which are excreted unchanged, especially in
the mucus of the respiratory tract and by the kidneys, are of
value in the treatment of coughs and colds (Asmena, Ballota) and
of urinary infections (Osyris, Petroselinum). Excretion by the
kidneys may lead to increased urinary flow {Rosmarinus), Oils
which are less well absorbed may be of value as vermifuges.
This is certainly true of oil of Chenopodium, which is one of our
most reliable remedies for roundworm and hookworm.
Many of the essential oils have the power to check bacterial
growth and are widely used as food preservatives, for example
in spiced fruits, and plants containing them are used by the
Natives in the treatment of local and even general infections
and as wound dressings {Calophyllum, Eugenia). The more
irritant oils are used as rubefacients {Amomum, Xanthoxylum)
and as snuff (Ajuga, Lantana).
Plants having essential oils associated with bitters are discussed
later under that heading.
Resins
The resins differ from the essential oils in being usually solid,
only slightly volatile, and more likely to be pungent or burning
in flavor than aromatic. Many of them are extremely irritating,
acting as counterirritants {Piper, Xylopia) or even as vesicants
(Anacardium), and causing vomiting and purging if swallowed
CHEMICAL BASIS OF DRUG PLANTS
15
in large dose. Most resins are associated in the plant with other
principles such as essential oils, glucosides, or alkaloids, and it
is not always possible to determine, when the whole drug is used,
to which constituent any given effect is due. Several resins are
combined with gums forming gum-resins, which are soothing
rather than irritating. Some of the more important resins are
collected in a relatively pure state as exudates from incisions in
the bark of trees {Canarium, Copaifera, Pistacia). Many gum-
resins are similarly collected (Anacardium, Bosivellia, Commu
phora, Eriodendron, Mangifera, Moringa, Ocina, Symphonia),
Tannin is also present in the exudate in Eriodendron and
Pterocarpus. Resins may form a constituent of a milky latex,
which is collected and dried (Calotropis, Carpodinus, Ricino-
dendron), while in Mallotus the hairs of the fruit are resinous.
Many of the resins resemble the essential oils in their actions
and, like these, are used as carminatives (Amomum, Piper, Zingi¬
ber), in the treatment of respiratory disorders and infections of
the urinary tract {Albizzia, Fagara). Of great importance are
the purgative resins (Ipomea) which are used both by Natives
and by white physicians, as are a few narcotic and sedative resins,
of which the most valuable is Cannabis or haschisch.
The more poisonous members of the group, used as arrow poi¬
sons (Dichapetalum), cause a violent local reaction and even fatal
poisoning. Their slight solubility leads also to their use as ver¬
mifuges (Brayera, Albizzia) and for the destruction of skin para¬
sites (Rhinacanthus, Symphonia),
The adhesive quality of resins gives them value as wound
dressings and as fillings for the cavities of carious teeth (Mal¬
lotus, Pistacia),
Sulphur Oils
These are liquids, resembling the essential oils in being vola¬
tile, but differing from them in composition, being sulphur com¬
pounds. Oils similar to that of mustard are present in the fruit
and seed of many of the Cruciferae and Capparidaceae, includ¬
ing Sinapis, Lepidium, Capparis, Boscia, Buchholzia, Cleome,
Courbomia, Crataeva, Maerua, and Moringa, Other sulphur
oils are found in Capsicum, Petiveria, Salvadora, and Thapsia,
These oils are all extremely irritating, causing reddening and
even vesication on the skin, and acting as carminatives in small
dose and as emetics in large. They are used for many purposes
by the Native medicine men, but it is doubtful whether any ef¬
fectiveness in such conditions as rheumatism, jaundice, large
16
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
spleen, or yellow fever is to be ascribed to anything but a semi-
magical idea that a “strong medicine” will have a correspond¬
ingly marked effect.
Bitters
The bitters constitute a large group of substances having no
general chemical relationship and with nothing in common but
the property of a bitter taste. As already stated, most alkaloids
have a bitter taste and many are used solely for that reason.
Many of the bitters are glucosides, and these will be included
here as well as those of other composition, known loosely as
“amaroids.” None of the amaroids or glucosidal bitters is poi¬
sonous, although usually given in small dose. Resinous bitters
are similarly used but are likely to be somewhat irritant. Bit¬
ters have the effect of increasing the appetite and improving
digestion, and in this way they act as general tonics, help to
control diarrhea resulting from food poisoning, and aid in
throwing off colds and other infections. The bitter taste at¬
tracts attention and, since all primitive and ignorant people an¬
ticipate effects from strong-tasting medicine, all sorts of virtues
have been ascribed to these drugs, on what might be called a
magical basis. Many of the drugs which are used as bitters con¬
tain also other active principles, such as resins and essential oils,
tannins, and alkaloids. Although in Western medicine the pres¬
ence of such substances modifies the method of use, it seems to
make little difference in the practices of Native medicine men.
The healing action of certain bitters on wounds is recognized in
Western medicine but, like the vermifuge power, the explana¬
tion is obscure.
Anthraquinone Cathartics
These include drugs much employed in both Western and Na¬
tive medicine. The principles may occur uncombined or as glu¬
cosides, but there is no difference in the action, which is a rather
mild purgation. The most important genera containing these
bodies are Cassia, of which some twenty species yield leaves
known as senna, and Aloe, from which a drug is prepared by
drying the juice which flows from the stumps of the fleshy radi¬
cal leaves. At least seventeen species are utilized in this way.
Glucosides yielding cathartic quinones are present in Ecballium,
Emex, Globularia, Rhamnus, and Rumex, all of which find use
as cathartics by the Natives. Many of these drugs, especially the
leaves of Cassia, Rhinacanthus and Globularia, are used as ^ess-
CHEMICAL BASIS OF DRUG PLANTS
17
ings for burns and other skin lesions. The pods of several spe¬
cies of Cassia also contain emodin, while the bark and other
parts may yield tannin.
In several plants anthraquinone cathartics are associated with
cathartic resins, as in the fruits of certain cucurbits (Citrullus,
Cucumis, Luffa, Momordica) and in the roots of Convolvulaceae
{Convolvulus, Ipomea), In these the resin is the more active
constituent.
Miscellaneous Principles
Many active principles, some of considerable therapeutic im¬
portance, do not fall into any of the above classes.
Rotenone, which is useful as an insecticide and vermifuge, is
found in species of Lonchocarpus, Milletia, and Tephrosia,
Santonin, of value against roundworms, is the anthelmintic
principle of Artemisia judaica and other members of this genus.
Kosotoxin and related principles, which are taeniacides, are
usually associated with resins and are held by some chemists to
be resinous in nature. They are present in Albizzia, Brayera,
Celosia, Jasminum, Mallotus, Phytolacca, and Rumex.
The same doubt as to their resinous character applies to the
toxic principles of Calotropis, Dichapetalum, and Euphorbia.
Pungent principles, such as capsaicin of Capsicum, gingerol of
Zingiber, and those of Moringa and Zantedeschia, are probably
simple compounds, unlike piperine, which is alkaloidal. The
same is true of cotyledontoxine, the principle of Cotyledon,
which induces paralysis and is used in the treatment of epilepsy.
An oily liquid, anemonol, which yields crystalline anemonin
on exposure to the air, renders many Ranunculaceae extremely
poisonous. The plants containing it—species of Anemone, Cle¬
matis, Knowltonia, and Ranunculus--zxt used as stimulant ulcer
dressings, to destroy skin tumors and the lesions of leprosy, as
vesicants, and to induce sneezing. A similar principle, Cardol,
is present in the fruit of Semecarpus.
The toxicity of certain plants does not appear to have been
accounted for by the discovery of any toxic constituent. These
include species of Mareya, Melianthus, Obetia, Secamone, Syna-
denium, Tacca, Treculia, and Turraea.
The presence of oxalic acid in Alyxia, Begonia, Bryophytum,
and Oxalis leads to their use as appetizers and to that of the last-
named as a vermifuge.
18
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
Digestive ferments are present in the fruits and juices of Ficus
and Carica and aid their action as applications to skin lesions
and as vermifuges.
It will be observed in Tables 4 to 10 that several genera are
included in more than one. This is because a number of active
principles are often associated in the same plant. Although
these are often of the same type—opium, for example, containing
as many as ten alkaloids, cinchona bark at least five, and Bu-
phane three or more—different types are frequently associated
also. A particular principle may occur in one part of a plant
and another type in another, as in several species of Cassia, or
both may be found together, as the resin and tannin in the latex
of Pterocarpus. Resins and essential oils are generally asso¬
ciated, and often found with other principles. Alkaloids are
rarely found with glucosides, but often with bitters.
It will also be noted that the plants are listed by genera and
not by species. This is possible because plants of the same genus
generally are characterized by the same type of principle. Thus
all species of Cassia and of Aloe yield quinone cathartics, all the
species of Strophanthus and Acokanthera have cardiac glucosides.
Even when the identical principle is not present in all members
of a genus, the type is commonly the same. Thus all species of
Amomum show essential oils, although the composition of the oil
is not the same in all. All species of Datura, of Solarium, or of
Strychnos contain alkaloids, although the alkaloids differ from
one to another species. Genera such as Vernonia, in which some
species contain alkaloids and others glucosides, are very few.
This tendency of one type of principle to extend throughout a
genus extends in some cases to the natural orders. A few exam¬
ples will suffice. Most Malvaceae are characterized by the pres¬
ence of mucilages, Geraniaciae and Cupuliferae by tannins, Pi-
naceae by resins, the leaves of Labiatae and Santalaceae and the
seed of Umbelliferae by essential oils. The bulbs of Amarylli-
daceae, the latex of Papaveraceae and of Berberidaceae yield al¬
kaloids, while many Apocynaceae contain cardiac glucosides.
Chapter III
UTIUZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
The drug plants of Africa may be divided for convenience of
study into the following four groups:
1. Plants which are more used in another connection and the
medicinal use of which is of secondary importance. It will be
sufficient for our purposes to do little more than list these.
2. Plants which are not natives of Africa, or are less grown in
Africa than in South Europe or Asia, but are cultivated for local
use or for export. In this group will be included those plants
which are little if at all used by the Native medicine men.
These also will not receive extensive discussion.
3. Plants which are used by the Natives chiefly as arrow poi¬
sons, or as ordeal or homicidal poisons. These have received
more detailed chemical and pharmacodynamic study than drugs
of the fourth group, and several of them have been introduced
into Western medicine and now rank among our most important
medicaments.
4. Native and introduced plants used by the Native medicine
men in the treatment of bodily ailments. Such plants are num¬
bered by the hundreds. A few, such as aloes and senna, have
been employed in Western medicine for centuries, having been
introduced chiefly by the Arabs. Many have been tried to a
more limited extent by European physicians stationed in Africa
and, being found of value, have been exported to Europe and
studied by chemists and pharmacologists, but very few have
found a lasting or extensive use. Fish poisons, being commonly
used also as medicines, will be placed in this group rather than
in group 3.
Drug Plants Having Other Commercial Uses
Most of the plants included in this group are not limited to
Africa, and most of them are grown more extensively elsewhere.
They are largely limited to the coastal regions of North and
East Africa. Many of the North African species are found also
in other Mediterranean lands, and it is uncertain whether they
are indigenous or were introduced centuries ago by the Arabs
or by settlers from southern Europe or Arabia,
19
20
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
By far the largest class are the spices and aromatics, which are
used for flavoring food, in toilet preparations, and as preserva¬
tives and insect repellents, as well as medicinally. Many of them
are used in Europe as medicaments, internally for various gastro¬
enteric disturbances, especially colic and flatulence, and topically
as counterirritants. Among the more important of such plants
grown both in North Africa and Southern Europe are dill (Ane-
thum graveolens); coriander {Coriandrum sativum); cumin (Cm-
minum cyminum), of which 1,300 tons were exported from Mo¬
rocco in 1911; lavender {Lavendula vera); bitter almond {Prunus
amygdala amara); several species of mint {Mentha aquatica, M.
rotundifolia, M. sylvestris); marjoram (Origanum majorana);
hoarhound (Marrubium vulgare); anise (Pimpinella anisum);
thyme (Thymus vulgaris); and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis).
Common to several tropical regions but mostly indigenous to
East Indian islands are cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum),
which is cultivated throughout tropical Africa; cardamom {Elet-
taria repens), grown in West Africa; cloves (Eugenia caryophyb
lata), the chief export crop of Madagascar and Zanzibar, nutmeg
(Myristica fragrans), grown also in Madagascar and Zanzibar;
and allspice (Pimenta officinalis), exported from Tunisia as well
as from Zanzibar. Red pepper (Capsicun annuum) and ginger
(Zingiber officinale), introduced from tropical Asia, are culti¬
vated throughout Africa, and many tons of each are exported
annually.
Some native plants which are little if at all cultivated else¬
where are valued as aromatics or condiments and are used ex¬
tensively by the Natives for flavoring food and to a less extent
as medicaments and as articles of export. Among these are sev¬
eral species of Amomum, for example, grains of paradise or
melagueta pepper (A. Melegueta) and false cardamom (A. stipu-
latum), both of West Africa, and Madagascar cardamom (A.
angustifolium) of Madagascar. Similar in use are black pepper
(Piper nigrum) cultivated from Asia, and the related indigenous
plants, Ashanti pepper (P. guineense), wild black pepper (P. urn-
bellatum) of West Africa; African cubebs (P. Clusii) of tropical
Africa; and Guinea pepper (Xylopia ethiopica) grown every¬
where. Similar in properties to cloves is Guinea cloves (£w-
genia owariensis).
Another group of plants used chiefly as mild stimulants, but
having medicinal properties, are those yielding caffeine, in¬
cluding the native Kola (Cola acuminata) which grows wild
UTILIZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
21
and is also cultivated in West Africa; coffee, of which there are
three species widely grown—two native (C. liberica, C. robusta)
and one introduced from Asia (C. arabica); and tea {Thea sinen^
sis) introduced from China into British East Africa.^
Also of importance are plants cultivated chiefly as foods, but
a part of which (often not the food) is used medicinally. In¬
cluded here are the peach tree {Amygdalus persica) the leaves of
which are used as a wound dressing in South Africa; parsley
{Petroselinum sativum) whose root is employed to relieve dys-
uria; pomegranate (Punica granatum) the bark of which is
taeniacidal; pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) seed, also used for tape¬
worm; mango tree (Mangifera indica) the leaves of which con¬
tain tannin; papaw (Carica papaya) the leaves and sap being
employed on skin lesions and as vermifuges. Two trees, the
fruits of which serve as food, as laxatives, and as the basis of
poultices, may also be mentioned here: the fig {Ficus carica) and
the tamarind (Tamarindus indicus).
Certain plant constituents used commercially for entirely dif¬
ferent purposes are occasionally employed medicinally. The
fixed oils of cottonseed {Gossypium herbaceum), of benniseed
(Sesamum indicum), and of other plants are applied as emol¬
lients and mild laxatives. The gum-resins of benzoin {Styrax
benzoin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), Bdellium (C. afri-
canum), Egyptian bdellium or doom palm (Hyphaene thebaica),
and South African bdellium (Othonna furcata), are exported
for use in toilet preparations and incense, but have a limited
medicinal use as wound dressings, mouth washes, and febri¬
fuges. Similar exudations exported for use chiefly as varnishes,
include Bombay copal (Trachylobium hornemannium), African
gutta-percha (Mimusops schimperi, M. hummel), mastic (Pistacia
lentiscus), and gum-resins from several species of Symphonia.
All these are employed as surgical splints or dressings.
A few plants exported as dyes have collateral medicinal value.
The root of madder (Rubia tinctorum) is thought by the Arabs
to have a cholagogue action, the flowers of African saffron (Car-
thamnus tinctorius) act as a cathartic, the roots of turmeric
saffron (Curcuma longa) and the leaves of henna (Lawsonia
inermis) meet many indications both topically and internally.
More important in their therapeutic indications are certain
plant products containing tannins, used in the leather industry.
1 These have been discussed in African Handbook No. $ of this series—
The Food Resources of Africa.
22
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
The best known of these is the nut gall, induced by the action
of a gall fly on the gall oak {Querctis infectoria) of North Africa,
which is used as an astringent.
Drug Plants Cultivated in Africa
Many drug plants which are not indigenous have been culti¬
vated in Africa for many years, chiefly by Arabs and by white
settlers, but also by the Negro tribes. Some of these have
escaped from gardens and, growing wild, are gathered by the
Natives from field and forest. Some of the plants which are
now cultivated may be indigenous to Africa as well as to south¬
ern Europe or Asia.
From the commercial and historical standpoint, by far the
most important of the cultivated drug plants is the opium poppy
(Papaver somniferum) which was introduced into Egypt and
other regions along the Mediterranean from Asia centuries ago.
This was formerly a very important export crop in these
countries, but international regulation of traffic in narcotics has
reduced its cultivation to a small percentage of its former size.
Opium is still grown for export under regulation and is used to
some extent by the Arabs themselves, although the Moslem re¬
ligion strictly forbids such indulgence. With the disappearance
of the opium trade, another narcotic, also introduced long ago
from Asia, namely, haschisch {Cannabis indica), has increased in
importance. This is used by the Arabs, largely by smoking, re¬
calling our own efforts to control the use of marihuana cigarettes
made from the same drug. A third narcotic, absinthe {Arte¬
misia absinthium), introduced from southern Europe, is culti¬
vated and esteemed as a drink by the Arabs, and is also exported
to France.
Other plants which have been brought from southern Europe
and are cultivated by the Arabs of Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco,
both for their own use and for export, include borage {Borago
officinalis), of which twenty tons are exported annually from
Algeria where it now grows wild; stavesacre {Delphinium sta-
phisagria), used as an antiparasitic by the Arabs; marigold
{Calendula officinalis); mezereon {Daphne mezereum), the bark
of which is esteemed in Europe as an alterative, four tons be¬
ing exported yearly from Algeria; oleander {Nerium oleander),
which has an action on the heart like that of digitalis, but is
used only topically for itch by Arab doctors; rue {Ruta grave-
UTILIZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
23
olens), used as a febrifuge; and squirting cucumber {Ecballium
elaterium), the purgative action of which is well known.
Drug plants from tropical Asia are grown in the tropical re¬
gions of Africa. The tree known as Pride of India {Melia aze-
derach) is cultivated extensively in the Belgian Congo and in
West Africa, where the bark is used by the Natives as an ant¬
helmintic, The croton oil plant (Croton tiglium) is grown in
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and is there utilized as a drastic
purge and anthelmintic. The jequirity (Abrus precatorius), the
seed of which contains the toxic protein abrin, now grows wild
in Senegal and in South Africa, where it is used topically by
the Zulus in conjunctivitis and on skin lesions. The sweet flag
(Acorus calamus) grows widely in North and West Africa, and
a demulcent drink is prepared from the root by the Natives of
Dahomey and elsewhere. Areca nut (Areca catechu) is culti¬
vated in Zanzibar and Madagascar. Mallotus philippenensis,
which yields the resin kamala, is grown in Abyssinia and the
French colonies, and chirata (Swertia chirata) from India is cul¬
tivated in South Africa.
A few drugs which appear to be indigenous are now derived
chiefly from cultivated plants and are used by Arab and white
doctors more than by the Native medicine men. Colocynth
(Citrullus colocynthis) grows throughout Africa, and the purga¬
tive action of the fruit is well known to the Natives. It is ex¬
ported from Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (over fifteen tons were sent
to the United States in 1924) and from Cape Colony. The
castor oil plant (Ricinus communis) also grows everywhere.
The seeds are used as purgatives, but the method of expressing
the fixed oil with heat, which destroys the toxalbumin, does
not seem to be generally practised, which limits its usefulness.
Castor oil is widely used commercially as a lubricant, and the
seeds are exported from several of the African colonies. Black
cumin (Nigella sativa, N. damascena) is cultivated and also grows
wild in Algiers, Morocco, and Tunis, and is used by the Arabs
as an addition to laxatives. White henbane (Hyoscyamus alba)
is also chiefly an Arab remedy as a topical anodye. Spanish
pellitory (Anacyclus Pyrethrum) is chiefly an article of export
(about five tons annually from Algeria).
Several medicinal plants which grow wild in North Africa as
well as in southern Europe do not appear to be much used by
the Natives, although they are gathered for export. These are
squill (Scilla maritima), of which thirty tons are exported yearly
24
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
from Algeria; meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale), exported
to England for use in gout, an affliction hardly known in Africa;
African ammoniac, a gum-resin from Ferula tingitana and pel-
litory {Parietaria officinalis).
Half a dozen plants which have been introduced into Africa
have escaped from gardens and now flourish as common weeds.
Several species of thorn apple (Datura) which contain mydriatic
alkaloids related to those of belladonna now grow over large
parts of the continent. Extracts of the leaves are used as dress¬
ings on painful wounds and as intoxicants. About three tons
of the leaves of Jimson weed (D. stramonium) are exported from
Algeria every year. Agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria) also grows
all over Africa. The leaves are used for tapeworm by the Zulus
and Kaffirs of South Africa, while in the north Arab doctors use
them for liver troubles. Fenugreek (Trigonella fenum-graecum)
is established especially in the north, where Arabs consider it
of value for coughs.
A few weeds from America also feature the native mate¬
ria medica. American wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides)
grows as a weed and is also cultivated everywhere. A hot de¬
coction of the leaves and tops is used in South Africa for colds
and intestinal colic, and the seeds are valued as an insecticide
and vermifuge there and in Madagascar. It is exported from
the Cape Province. Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana) is
also widely cultivated and has escaped in many places as a weed.
It is used as a narcotic and anodyne, and the milky juice is
applied topically on painful skin conditions, warts, and corneal
opacities in West Africa and in Tanganyika. An extract from
the leaves of Bermuda grass (Eleusine indica) is used for hemop¬
tysis in the Cameroon.
Two trees of recent introduction are utilized chiefly if not
entirely by white physicians. Peruvian bark (Cinchona calisaya)
from South America is now being cultivated in Dahomey, Congo,
and Angola, and serves as a local source of quinine in the strug¬
gle with malaria. More recently the Australian blue-gum tree
(Eucalyptus globulus) has been planted in South Africa, lower
Congo, and Senegal. The oil, eucalyptol, is a valued remedy
for infections of the respiratory and urinary tracts.
Plants Used as Poisons
Among the Native Africans, poisonous plants are used for
poisoning arrows, for destroying vermin, as ordeal and homi-
UTILIZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
25
cidal poisons, and as fish poisons. As almost all the plants
used as ordeal and homicidal poisons also serve as arrow poisons,
these will not be separated in the following discussion.
The use of poisoned arrows is universally practised by Natives
of all tropical regions, but the variety of plants used is probably
nowhere so great as in Africa. It is interesting to observe that
several genera, for example Strychnos, have species with similar
toxic properties in both tropical America and tropical Africa,
and in both continents the Natives have discovered the availa¬
bility of the species occurring in their own area. Many of the
poisons are prepared for use by boiling the appropriate part
of the plant and allowing evaporation to proceed until the mass
is of a gummy consistency, when it is spread on the head of the
arrow and allowed to dry. Very often a nonpoisonous or less
poisonous constituent is added to increase the adhesiveness. In
some plants the toxic principle is contained in a milky latex
which dries into a sticky mass without concentration by heat.
This is the case with Euphorbias, Crotons and Adeniums,
These do not require additions to increase their adhesiveness,
but as their action is largely a severe local irritation, it is com¬
mon practice to mix them with a poison having a more active
general toxic effect, such as Acokanthera or Strophanthus, The
inflammatory action not only aids in disabling the victim, but
through the local congestion hastens the absorption of the more
active poison. The plants having little local action generally
depend on cardiac glucosides or alkaloids for their effect, while
those having a severe topical action contain toxic resins.
In order to understand the practice of ordeal by poison, one
must realize to what a great extent the life of the African Na¬
tive is ruled by his belief in magic. The failure of the crops,
or an epidemic, is thought to be due to the evil machinations
of some malevolent individual or witch casting a spell on the
members of the tribe. The witch doctors or medicine men de¬
termine whom they suspect, and the unfortunate individual is
forced, with much ceremonial and incantation, to drink a dose
of the poison. If the ordeal is survived the suspect is cleared
of the charge; if death results, it is the judgment of the tribal
gods and sure evidence of guilt. The meth^ of using the poi¬
son and the accompanying ritualistic observances differ mark¬
edly from tribe to tribe, but are along the line indicated. Poi¬
sons are also used by the more knowing members of the tribe as
a means of removing enemies or of^taining revenge. Such use is
more properly called homicidal poisoning.
26
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
Several genera of the Apocynaceae yield glucosides which slow
and stop the heart. The most important of these is Strophan-
thus, woody vines the glucosides of which are known as strophan-
tins. Over a dozen species are used as arrow poisons. In West
Africa, S. hispidus is most important, with S. grains, S, kombd,
and S, sarmentosus playing secondary roles. In the Congo and
Rhodesia the same species are employed as well as S. bracteatus,
S, dewevrei, S. holosericeus, S, preussii, and S. tholloni. In Brit¬
ish East Africa, 5. kombe, 5. courmonti, and S. emini, and in
Mozambique S. petersianus and 5. verrucosus, are the favored
forms. A related genus of shrubs and small trees, Acokanthera,
contains similar glucosides, acocantherin and ouabain. Several
species are found in central. West, and South Africa. A. schim-
peri is one of the important species and ranges from Abyssinia
throughout British West Africa, growing mostly in the moun¬
tains. A. abyssinica, which is said to contain also a toxic alka¬
loid, abyssinnine, in largely limited to Ethiopia. A, friesiorum
and A. longiflora are used in Tanganyika. A, venenata is prob¬
ably the most widespread species, extending all over British East
Africa, South Africa, and Congo. A. spectabilis grows in the
forests of South Africa. Another genus containing similar glu¬
cosides is Adenium, small shrubs with milky juice which exudes
from cuts in the bark and is allowed to dry. Most of the species
are of the south and east, although one, A. honghel, grows from
Senegal to Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Three species, A, coetanum,
A, obesum, and A, somalense, are used as poisons in East Africa;
one. A, multiflorum, in southeast Africa; and another, A. boehm-
ianum, from Angola to the Cape. In Madagascar is found a
member of the same order, Cerbera tanghin (Tanghinia) or
Madagascar ordeal bean. The seeds contain a toxic glucoside,
tanghinin, and are used both as arrow poison and for ordeals.
The leaves of the oleander, Nerium oleander, used as arrow
poison in Mozambique, contain the cardiac glucosides, neriin
and oleandrin.
Several plants belonging to other orders also yield cardiac
glucosides, enabling them to be used as arrow or as ordeal poi¬
sons. The best known of these, Erythrophleum, is a genus of
large trees, one species of which, sassy bark, E. guineense, is the
chief ordeal poison of most of tropical Africa. The poison is
prepared by boiling a carefully measured portion of the bark
and giving a dose prescribed by the ritual. Two related species
are used in the same way but to a less extent, E, coumingo of
Madagascar and Gleditschia africana (formerly £. africana) of
UTILIZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
27
British West Africa. All of the species contain the same glu-
coside, erythrophlein.
The milky juice of Periploca nigrescens, yielding the cardiac
glucoside periplocin, is used as arrow poison in the Congo, and
the related Menabea venenata finds employment as an ordeal
poison in Madagascar. The upas tree of Java, Antiaris toxi-
caria, has been introduced and now grows wild in Uganda.
The gum-resin holding the glucoside antiarin may be used as
a poison by the Natives as it is in Java.
Many poison plants owe their toxicity to alkaloids. One of
the most interesting of these, employed as an ordeal poison
throughout western Africa, but less used on arrows, is a legumi¬
nous woody vine, the calabar bean or ordeal bean, Physostigma
venenosum, the seed of which yields an alkaloid, physostigmine
or eserine, which is widely used in Western medicine. Large
amounts of the beans are exported from West Africa, twenty-
nine tons from Sierra Leone alone in 1915. Physostigma in¬
duces violent contractions of the bowel, giving rise to agonizing
cramps, which the victim is supposed to bear without evident
signs of suffering. Larger doses kill by action on the heart.
Similar alkaloids are contained in three other leguminous plants
used as arrow poisons—Deiarmm senegalense of Senegal, and
Dioclea refiexa and Mucuna flagellipes of central Africa.
Two other genera of the same order contain toxic constituents
which give them value as arrow poisons. These are goat's rue,
Tephrosia, containing a sapotoxin, tephrosin, and rattle pod,
Crotalaria, The most important species is T. vogellii, which
occurs throughout tropical Africa. Used in the Congo are T.
Candida and T. toxicaria, whole T. lupulinifolia and T. macro-
poda are used by the Zulus of South Africa. Two species of
Crotalaria, C. brevidens and C. ononoides, are used as poisons
in the Congo.
An important genus which is widely spread throughout the
tropical world and supplies arrow poisons to the Natives and
drugs to Western medicine, is Strychnos, which supplies the mix
vomica of India (from S. nux-vomica), the curare of South Amer¬
ica (from S. toxifera) and includes the tieut^ tree of Java (S.
tieuie), and several African species. The plants are trees or
woody vines and yield toxic alkaloids, usually the convulsants
strychnine or brucine, more rarely the paralysant curarine. A
few are not poisonous. The genus is less used as an arrow poi¬
son in Africa than in South America, but extracts of the bark
28
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
of the woody vines, S. dewevrei, S. icaja, and S, kipapa, are so
employed in Congo, and S. spinosa is an ordeal poison in Mo-
zombique.
Other plants used because of toxic alkaloids include African
Amaryllis (Buphane disticha), the bulbs of which, containing
haemanthine, are used as arrow and homicidal poison through¬
out tropical and southern Africa. The East African colic-root
(Dioscorea sansibarensis) is a homicidal poison, and the East
African iron-weed (Vernonia hildebrandtii) an arrow poison in
Tanganyika and Kenya. The roots of two species of Sarco-
cephalus, containing a heart-depressing alkaloid, doundakine,
are also used to poison arrows—doundake (5. esculentus) in West
Africa and West African box-wood (S. diderichii) in the Congo.
In several species used as poisons the nature of the toxic prin¬
ciple is not perfectly certain, but in some of these it is prob¬
ably a resin or associated with a resin.
The large genus of Dichapetalum, which extends over all of
tropical and southern Africa, yields a narcotizing and a con-
vulsant principle, said to be resins, and many species are used
as arrow poisons and are dangerous to grazing cattle. Several
of these shrubs, including D. acuminatum, D. bussei, D, lolo,
D. lujaei, D, mombongense, and D. mombuttense, flourish in
the Congo. In British East Africa D. macrocarpum, D. mossam-
bicense, and D, stuhlmanii are found, while West Africa pro¬
vides D. toxicarium and South Africa D. cymosum • and D. vene-
natum.
Other poisons ascribed to resins include those of Albizzia versi¬
color of East Africa, Anacardium occidentale, Combretum con-
fertum, and C. grandiflorum of the Congo, and Calotropis pro-
cera of the southern Sahara Desert.
Among those plants used as homicidal poisons, some owe their
toxicity to toxalbumins. These include the fruits of Cucumis
aculeatus, C. africanus, and C. figarei in Tanganyika and that of
C. myriocarpus, the poison apple of South Africa, and the bark
of Phyllanthus engleri in northern Rhodesia. The unripe ber¬
ries of Melia azederach, used also for homicidal purposes, prob¬
ably owe their toxicity to a protein, as they are not dangerous
when cooked.
* Recent studies by Marais (48) have isolated a toxic substance, mono-
fluoracetic acid, from D. cymosum of South Africa, which is poisonous to
grazing cattle and sheep. This add, made synthetically, has b^ tested as
a rat poison by The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, but was considered
too dangerous for general use.
UTILIZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
29
Several plants of uncertain chemistry are used as poisons.
The best known of these is probably hyena-poison, Jatropha
globosa (Hyenanche), the root of which contains hyenanchine,
said by some chemists to be alkaloidal, by others not. It is used,
as the name implies, to poison meat to destroy hyenas. Similar
in application is the bark of Spondianthus preussii, a tree found
in the Cameroon and used as a rat poison. The juice of Pali-
sota barteri is employed as an arrow poison by the Mombuttu
tribe of southern Egyptian Sudan. The bark of Securidaca Ion-
gipedunculata is an ordeal poison in the Congo, and that of
Elaeodendron croceum in South Africa, while the root of Cour-
bonia camporum serves as a homicidal poison in Tanganyika.
Frequently added to the poisons already mentioned, but rarely
used alone, is the milky juice, or latex, from two genera of Eu-
phorbiaceae. Euphorbia and Croton, The juice contains acrid
resins, and perhaps other principles which cause acute gastro¬
enteritis if swallowed, and intense local inflammation and ne¬
crosis if injected. The species of Euphorbia are mostly spiny,
leafless plants resembling cacti and exuding the latex from in¬
cisions in the stem. Of the species used as poisons, three—£.
calycina, E, candelabrum, and E, venifica—Rve found all over
tropical Africa; in West Africa, E, poissoni and E, unispina are
used; in East Africa, E, lathyris, E, neglecta, E. noxia, and E.
tirucalli; and in the South, E, dinteri, E. metabelensis, and E.
media. The latex of the many species of Croton has similar
properties, but only two species appear to be used as poisons,
C. lobatus of tropical Africa and C. oligandrus in West Africa.
An extract of the leaves of Lasiosiphon krausii is similarly em¬
ployed in West Africa.
Fish Poisons
Fish poisons, the use of which has been described (page 10),
act either after absorption, by weakening the heart or muscles,
or more commonly by so altering the surface of the gills that
the fish are unable to breathe. Many saponins act in this way,
and a few tannins and probably those resins which are used for
the purpose. It is possible that all fish poisons affect the gills
only and that the toxic principles which act on higher animals
are not the effective agents. It has been shown that this is true
of digitalis leaves, which kill by a topical effect and not by their
action on the heart.
30
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
Possibly acting by paralytic or cardiac action are Sophora to-
mentosa of Mozambique and Dioscorea rupicola of South Africa,
which contain toxic alkaloids, as well as Adenium coetanum and
A. multiftorum of South Africa, which yield cardiac glucosides.
Action on the gills is almost certain in the saponin plants such
as Balanites egyptica, Mundulea suberosa, Tephrosia toxicaria,
and T, vogellii of tropical Africa; Randia dumetorum and R,
nilotica of East Africa; Barringtonia racemosa of Madagascar;
Cynanchum sarcostemmoides of Zanzibar; Tetrapleura thon-
ningi of West Africa; Tephrosia Candida of the Congo; and T.
macropoda of South Africa. Probably dependent on the topical
action of tannins are Fluggea microcarpa and Pentaclethra ma-
crophylla of West Africa. Local action of a toxalbumin may
account for the efiFectiveness of Ophiocaulon cissampeloides of
West Africa. The method of action of Morelia senegalensis and
Xanthoxylum senegalense of West Africa, of Synadenium pisca-
torum of East Africa, and of Parkia biglobosa of tropical Africa,
is doubtful.
Native Drug Plants
The discussion of the medicinal uses of plants by the Native
medicine men is rendered difficult by the great number of spe¬
cies involved and by the fact that, as already indicated, the pur¬
pose for which a particular plant is employed may differ widely
from one tribe to another.
Many of the plants mentioned by various authors as native
medicines are probably without therapeutic value and owe their
continued use to chance or to a magical association. A large
proportion of the drugs have, however, been studied chemically
or physiologically by scientific investigators, and their action can
be explained on a rational basis and their therapeutic value thus
confirmed. In the absence of such studies we can assume the
usefulness of a particular species which extends over a wide geo¬
graphic area, when we find that it is similarly utilized in dif¬
ferent parts of its range. Further, when different species of the
same genus growing in different localities are used by unrelated
tribes, we can with some assurance consider that a principle of
value in the treatment of disease is common to all the species,
and if a chemical analysis of one of the species is available, it
can be considered highly probable that the same, or a closely
related substance, is also present in the other species.
UTIUZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
31
The fact that a given species, or difiEerent species of the same
genus, is used for different purposes by various tribes, need not
necessarily lead to doubt of its eflScacy. Plants containing tan¬
nin, for example, are of value in checking diarrhea, as applica¬
tions to congested mucous membranes, and as wound dressings.
The fact that quinine is used by physicians for fever, malaria,
influenza, coryza, and loss of appetite, need not raise doubts as
to its efficacy in each of these conditions.
It is not easy to find a basis for arranging the drugs or plants
deserving consideration. It would seem logical to arrange them
according to their properties and uses, but as the same plant may
contain several principles and be used for many different pur¬
poses, this entails a great deal of duplication. A strictly botani¬
cal arrangement is favored by most authors, but for those who
are not botanists this has no special advantages and makes it
difficult to find any special plant in tables.
As pointed out earlier, a large proportion of the common
plants of any region are likely to be employed therapeutically
by the medicine men of one or more tribes, and in the whole of
Africa the total number to which medicinal properties are
ascribed includes many hundred species. It is obviously im¬
possible to give a detailed description of the uses and properties
of so many, and it has been thought best to give first a brief
description of each of the more important genera and then to
present all the plants used medicinally in alphabetic tables *
(page 62) showing the scientific name, the geographic distribu¬
tion, the part of the plant utilized, the active principles, and the
chief uses. Some additional information will be found in the
tables under each type of principle.
The genera selected for specisd discussion will be arranged ac¬
cording to their most important active principle as described in
Chapter II.
Gums and Mucilages. By far the most important genus yield¬
ing gum is Acacia, thorny shrubs and small trees, of the dry sa¬
vannahs, the product of which has already been described (page
6). The chief sources of gum for export are A. albida, A. ara-
bica, A. Senegal, A. seyal, and A. verek, all of which grow in
the semi-desert belt extending across Africa from Senegal to
Egypt. Gum from A. tortilis is exported from Egypt and Trip¬
oli; A. gummifera from Morocco; that of A. giraffae and A.
horrida from South Africa. Gathered for use by the Natives,
a Tables 11 to 15.
32
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
but less important as exports are the gums of A. ehrenbergii of
the desert belt; A. farnesiana and A. sieberiana of the Congo;
A, catechu of Mozambique; and A, sassa of Madagascar. The
bark and fruit of several of these and of other species are used
as astringents. Analyses report only tannin, which would seem
to have a special irritant quality, as extracts of the bark of A.
caffra, A. gerrardi, and A, horrida act as emetics, and those of
A, gummifera, A. sieberiana, and A, tortilis are employed as
vermifuges.
Another very important genus which provides both emollients
and astringents is Ficus, The fruit of the fig tree (F. carica) is
one of the chief exports of North Africa, while the latex of
several species, such as F. vogeliana of tropical Africa, is a source
of rubber. The fruit of most species contains mucilage associ¬
ated with digestive ferments and is used as a dressing for boils
and skin lesions and also as a cathartic. The latex and leaves
of several species also contain digestive ferments and are used
for indigestion and on skin lesions. Finally the bark is rich in
tannin and useful in diarrhea and as a vermifuge and wound
dressing.
The entire family Malvaceae is characterized by the presence
of mucilage, and the leaves and roots of several mallows (Malva)
and marshmallows (Hibiscus) are used as poultices and wound
dressings and internally for coughs and urinary disorders. '
Tannins. The unripe fruit, bark, and leaves of the species
of custard apple (Anona) contain tannin often associated with
an inactive alkaloid, methyl-tyrosine, and a resin. Extracts are
used as astringents in diarrhea. The leaves of A. muricata are
said to be antispasmodic, while those of A. chrysophylla and A.
senegalensis are considered so toxic that they are used as homi¬
cidal poisons. No antispasmodic or toxic properties have been
found in any of the species studied by pharmacologists.
In the genus Clerodendron, bitter substances, chirettin and
opheliac acid, are present with the tannin, and various parts of
the plants are used as dressings for wounds, burns, and snake
bites, and internally as vermifuges and expectorants.
In many species of Grewia, mucilage and tannin are widely
distributed, making them useful as wound dressings. Internally
they are used, for no scientifically known reason, in the treat¬
ment of rheumatism, small pox, measles, and syphilis.
The cucumber trees, Kigelia, and the cayor apples, Parina-
rium, resemble the figs in that the edible fruit is used as a
cathartic and the tannin-rich bark and root as astringents.
UTILIZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
33
Kino, large quantities of which are exported, is the dried sap
of Pterocarpus erinaceus, and the similar sap of at least seven
other species is also used as an astringent, topically and in¬
ternally.
The root and bark of the jujubes, Zizyphus, are very rich in
tannin and are widely used as astringents and in the treatment
of scrofula. The edible fruit is acid and astringent. The bark
of Z. jujuba is employed as a fish poison in Abyssinia.
Saponins. Three genera of leguminous trees, the action of
which is probably dependent on saponins, are found over much
of Africa, namely, Milletia, the sea bean or sword bean, Entada,
and Albizzia, As with most plants containing saponins, the in¬
dications for their use are not well defined, and they are em¬
ployed for many unrelated conditions including epilepsy, cystitis,
pneumonia, syphilis, leprosy, gonorrhea, and as vermifuges.
The bark and other parts of musenna, Albizzia anthelmintica,
and other species of this genus contain a sapotoxin, musennin,
which gives them value especially as taeniacides. They are used
also for destruction of skin parasites. Like the related genus
of Pterocarpus, the species of Entada and Albizzia also contain
tannin, and the bark is used as an astringent in diarrhea and
dysentery, and internally to check uterine bleeding and the
discharge in gonorrhea, as well as topically in ophthalmia and
as a wound dressing.
Alkaloids. Many of the Amaryllidaceae show the presence
of toxic alkaloids in the bulbs. Two of these, buphanine and
haemanthine, are narcotic in action, the other, lycorine, a cere¬
bral convulsant. One or more of these lend toxicity to the bulbs
of the species of blood flower, Haemanthus, and the closely re¬
lated candelabra flower, Buphane, which are employed as arrow
poisons in West and South Africa and as topical applications to
ulcers, wounds, and the sores of leprosy. Some species of blood
flower are said to check febrile colds. Several species of Hypoxis
which contain haemanthine are used as expectorants and vermi¬
fuges and to destroy vermin. The bulbs of six species of the
Natal lily, Crinum, containing lycorine, are used in colds, scro¬
fula, and leprosy, as are those of Cltvia and Cyrtanthus, which
yield the same alkaloid.
Many of the Solanaceae contain alkaloids like those of bella¬
donna, which relieve cramps of smooth muscle and in large
dose are delirifacient, like hyoscamine, or narcotic, like hyoscine.
Death may result from respiratory paralysis. The nightshades.
34
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
Solatium, all parts of which contain the delirifacient alkaloid
solanine, are used in colic and dysmenorrhea, as cholagogues and
diuretics and as applications to painful sores. The thorn apples.
Datura, containing both hyoscyamine and hyoscine, are used
similarly and the dried leaves are smoked for asthma. The
leaves of several species are exported from North Africa. The
native henbane, Hyoscyamus albus, contains the same alkaloids
and is used both externally and internally to relieve pain. The
Tuaregs of central Sahara are said to commit homicide by ad¬
ministration of H. falezlez.
The Rubiaceae are also rich in important alkaloids, the best
known being quinine, which comes from several species of Cin¬
chona, all natives of tropical America. A number of these,
chiefly C. calisaya, are now cultivated in Congo and Angola,
and the bark is both exported and used as an antiperiodic. Less
important is yohimbene, the alkaloid from the bark of Cory-
nanthe, which is used as an antiperiodic, febrifuge, bitter tonic,
and astringent in western Africa from Guinea to Angola. The
bark of C. johimbi is exported from West Africa. Similar alka¬
loids are found in Crossopteryx, several species of which occur
in both East and West Africa. The bark is valued as a febri¬
fuge, antiperiodic, and astringent.
Several species of Lantana, known as birds' brandy or wild
sage, one of which, L. brasiliensis, was introduced by the Portu¬
guese and now grows wild, contain lantanine, which is similar in
action to quinine and like it useful in fevers and colds and as a
general tonic. The quinine tree of South Africa and other spe¬
cies of Rauwolffia contain three alkaloids—rauwolffine, ajmaline,
and serpentine—and the bark and root are used as tonics, febri¬
fuges, and cathartics. The leaves of R, vomitoria are emetic,
and an extract of the bark is used to destroy vermin.
More toxic alkaloids are found in the numerous species of
Senecio, some forty of which are listed as poisonous to grazing
cattle. The only named alkaloid appears to be senecofoline,
extracted from S. latifolius. This principle causes cerebral con¬
vulsions followed by coma, and also internal hemorrhages. The
leaves of several species are used in the Congo, East and South
Africa, and Madagascar, as diuretics in dropsy, as expectorants,
and to relieve the pain of toothache, colic, and rheumatism.
A toxic alkaloid, monocrotaline, is present in many species of
rattle bush, Crotalaria, which are also dangerous to cattle and
are used as arrow poisons. Internally the root and leaves of half
UTIUZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
35
a dozen species are employed for intestinal and uterine cramps
and in malaria and other fevers.
The bark and root of several species known as false pareira,
Cissampelos, yield three alkaloids—eissampeline, pelosine, and
sepeerine. Extracts are used throughout tropical Africa as di¬
uretics, emmenagogues, and febrifuges, and in the treatment of
venereal disease. The root of C. torulosa, which has a milky
juice and a bitter taste, is chewed to relieve toothache by the
Kaffirs and Zulus. True pareira, once much used in the United
States as a bitter, is obtained from a related species, Chondro-
dendron tomentosum.
Essential Oils. These oils are universally present in all parts
of plants belonging to the Labiatae, many of which are of com¬
mercial importance. Lavender {Lavandula), hoarhound {Mar-
rubium), marjoram {Origanum), rosemary {Rosmarinus), sage
{Salvia), and thyme {Thymus) are gathered in large quantity
in North Africa for export and for use, chiefly by the Arabs
and whites, as condiments, as diuretics, and for colds. Various
native species of basil {Ocimum), mint {Mentha), germander
{Teucrium), hedge-nettle {Stachys), bugle-weed {Ajuga), and cat-
herb {Ballota), other species of which are used medicinally in
Europe and America, are employed similarly and for intestinal
and uterine colic, as febrifuges and antiperiodics, and as anti¬
septic wound dressings. Other genera of Labiates more re¬
stricted to the tropics but used for the same general purposes
include Hyptis, Leucas, Lasiocorys, Moschosma, Plectranthus,
Solenostemon, and Tetradenia.
Of equal importance are the essential oils of the Myrtaceae,
which include Eugenia, the genus which provides cloves and
Guinea cloves, used as condiments and carminatives. Cloves
are the most important crop of Madagascar and the neighboring
coast, three thousand to five thousand tons being exported
yearly. The bark of the clove tree is used in treating syphilis
and rheumatism, and that of a closely related genus, Acmena,
is considered by the Zulus as of value in chronic lung disease.
Not used in native medicine, but valued by white physicians
and for export, is Eucalyptus from Australia, one species of
which is cultivated in many parts of Africa.
In the Zingiberaceae the oils are usually associated with
pungent resins, and the combination gives them added value
as flavors and condiments and in the treatment of colic and
as vermifuges. The most important is ginger {Zingiber), the
roots of which are used by the Natives and exported by the ton
36
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
from West Airica. Cardamom and melagueta pepper are the
fruits of several species of Amomum and of the closely related
Elettaria, True cardamom, the seed of E. repens {A, carda-
momum), Madagascar cardamom from A. angustifolium, and
grains of paradise or melagueta pepper from A, melagueta are
all important exports. The seed as well as the roots of these
and related species are used as condiments, carminatives, vermi¬
fuges, and counterirritants in West Africa and Madagascar.
The roots of other plants of the same order, including galanga
(Alpinia), turmeric {Curcuma), Madagascar ginger (Hedychium),
and Phrynium, are used for the same purposes as ginger and
are minor exports.
Resins. Resins are commonly associated with other princi¬
ples which modify their action. In Africa, myrrh and African
bdellium, which are exudates from the bark of species of Com¬
miphora, occur mixed with a gum like gum arabic. These gum-
resins are used as wound dressings and plaster bases, and in
dysentery, and are also exported. In Combretum and Termi-
nalia the resin in the leaves and roots is associated with tannin.
Extracts are widely used as purgatives, cholagogues, antidysen-
terics, vermifuges, and for wound dressings. In some species of
Terminalia the astringency is greater than the laxative action
of the resin.
In the Cucurbitaceae the resin is often associated or combined
with a glucosidal or simple toxic principle such as the cucumin
and myriocarpin of Cucumis, the colocynthin of Citrullus, the
momordicin of Momordica, and the toxic protein of Pepo, All
these drugs are used as purgatives and vermifuges, and several
are extremely toxic, myriocarpin inducing edema of the lungs
and others violent vomiting and purging.
The purgative roots of the Convolvulaceae depend for their
action on the presence of an irritating resin and a purgative
glucoside such as ipomein or convolvulin.
The many species of lions* ears, or dagga (Leonotis), contain
a bitter purgative resin in all parts of the plant. Extracts of
the leaves or roots are employed as purgatives, taeniacides, and
as dressings for veldt sores, syphilitic ulcers, hemorrhoids, etc.
They are used both internally and topically in snake bite.
Aothraquinone Cathartics. These cathartic principles are
probably used more extensively than any others, and the two
great African genera containing them—Aloe and Cassia—include
the most important drug plants of the continent. The leaves
UTILIZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
37
of more than twenty species of Cassia, all containing emodin,
known as senna, are collected for use, and many of them are
exported. Of the chief species, C. acutifolia, over one thousand
tons are exported annually as Alexandrian senna from the Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan and Egypt. Leaves of Senegal cassia (C. obo-
vata) are sometimes exported. The pods of many species also
contain emodin, and those of purging cassia (C. fistula) are ex¬
ported in large amount from the same regions. Cassia leaves,
usually in powder or as a paste, are also used to dress wounds.
The bark and root of many species contain tannin and serve as
astringents. A toxalbumin in the seeds of C. abusus gives them
value as a vermifuge and as applications to old ophthalmias.
Aloes is the dried juice exuding from the cut leaves of any
one of over twenty species of Aloe, The chief commercial vari-
ties are: socotrine aloes exported chiefly from Arabia and derived
in large part from A. perryi and A, succotrina; and Cape aloes,
from A, ferox, A, africana, and A, plicatilis, exported from South
Africa. Although only these species are recognized officially as
sources of true aloes, it is probable that the drug arriving in the
market is a mixture from many species not distinguished by the
Native collectors. The dried latex seems to be less valued by
the Natives than by the whites as a cathartic, but extracts of the
leaves and roots of various species are applied to burns and sores
and to sore eyes, and are used as vermifuges and antisyphilitics.
Among these are A, arborescens, A latifolia, A, mitriformis, A.
platylepis. A, purpurascens. A, saponaria, A. spicata of South
Africa; A, abyssinica, A, bainesii, A. constricta, A, cryptopoda
of East Africa; A, macroclada, A, oligophylla, A. sahundra, and
A, vera from Madagascar.
Miscellaneous Principles. One of the most important of
the principles which do not fall in any of the large groups is
anemonol, an oily acrid liquid, changing on exposure to an
equally irritant crystalline compound, anemonin. Anemonol is
present in many of the Ranunculaceae such as the wind-flowers
(Anemone), and the closely related Knowltonia, as well as in
virgins-bower (Clematis) and buttercups (Ranunculus). The
roots and leaves of these plants, either fresh, dried, powdered,
or as extracts, serve as counterirritants and epispastics, as snuff
to clear the head in colds and headache and internally as
purgatives and even as homicidal poisons.
Associated with irritant resins are several simple principles.
One of the most important of these is piperine, the pungent
38
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
principle of various species of Piper, including Guinea pepper,
Ashanti pepper, and black pepper. Similar in character is
anonacein, from Xylopia, also called Guinea pepper. The fruit
and more rarely the leaves of these plants are used as counter-
irritants in rheumatism, headache, and toothache, and as car¬
minatives, expectorants, and vermifuges. Also associated with
a resin and perhaps combined with it is euphorbon, found in
the latex of many species of Euphorbia. The latex, or parts
containing it, is used as purgative, expectorant, emetic, and
vermifuge, and as an application to ringworm and other skin
lesions. The latex of many species is a constituent of arrow
poisons, less often used as fish poison and rarely as a homicidal
poison. Similarly combined with resins are rottlerin, the prin¬
ciple of Mallotus, and kosotoxin, found in Brayera and perhaps
in Celosia, They are used chiefly as taeniacides. Many authori¬
ties believe both of these, as well as euphorbon, to be resinous
bodies. Doubt also exists as to the nature of musennin, the
principle of Albizzia, which may be a sapotoxin or a simple
substance. Extracts of the root and bark containing it are used
as taeniacides, arrow poisons, and for destroying animal para¬
sites.
The only principles known to exist in the species of Indigo-
fera and Oldenlandia used as remedies by the Natives, are an-
thraquinone dyes such as indican, alizarin, and purpurin. These
are said to be physiologically inactive and may not be responsible
for the reputed value of the plants as emetics, sedatives, vermi¬
fuges, and astringents. The root of /. zeyheri is said to be a
paralytic poison.
Principles of Doubtful Nature. In several important gen¬
era there is difference of opinion as to the nature of the prin¬
ciple, or one type is reported from one species and another from
other members of the genus. The following seem worthy of
discussion:
Artemisia. Most of the Artemisias contain only nontoxic es¬
sential oils, as do A. afra and A. herba-alba, which are used as
expectorants. Some species, including A. absinthium, which is
cultivated in North Africa, have a narcotic oil associated with a
bitter principle, absinthin, and are valued as intoxicants; while
A. judaica and A. ramosa, like the Russian species, A. maritime,
yield santonin, a neutral principle valuable against roundworms.
Cluytia. Of these Euphorbiaceous shrubs some, including C.
abyssinica, are said to yield a glucoside, cluytiarol; others, such
UTILIZATION OF DRUG PLANTS
39
as C. hirsuta, an alkaloid used like quinine as a tonic and febri¬
fuge. Still others may contain a sapotoxin.
Gomphocarpus. According to some authors the action of
plants of this genus as tonics and purgatives is due to the pres¬
ence of uzarin, a cardiac glucoside. Other authors have reported
a neutral principle, cynanchotoxin, which causes clonic convul¬
sions in overdose. The former is probably correct.
Erythrina, Some species, such as E. indica, contain a narcotic
alkaloid, erythrine, and two paralytic alkaloids, erythroidine and
coralloidine. Others, including E. senegalensis, owe their action
to a bitter principle, picrerythrin. It is possible that all species
show more than one of these. Extracts are used as febrifuges,
expectorants, anti-asthmatics, and wound dressings.
Jatropha. Like most Euphorbiaceae, the species are all poi¬
sonous, but the toxic principle may be a toxalbumin, curcin, as
in /. curcas, which is purgative and vermifuge, or a convulsant,
hyenanchine, which may be an alkaloid or a neutral principle
as in /. globosa, which is employed to poison hyenas. Other
species are used as purges, emetics, and wound dressings.
Mussaenda, Different species are said to depend for their ac¬
tion respectively on a tannin, a sapotoxin, or a bitter glucoside.
Vernonia, This is a large and varied genus, which should
perhaps be divided into several genera. Only three species seem
to have been analyzed. One of these, V, nigritiana, contains a
cardiac glucoside, vernonin; a second, F. hildebrandtii, a toxic
alkaloid; and the third, V, senegalensis, an alkaloid resembling
emetine in action. All of the species irrespective of their com¬
position are used as emetics and expectorants, as tonics and
febrifuges, and for colicky pain.
Tephrosia. The many species of this genus which are utilized
as arrow poisons, fish poisons, and for the destruction of vermin
contain a toxic principle, tephrosin, which some chemists claim
is a sapotoxin, and others identify with rotenone, which is not a
glucoside.
Xanthoxylum. The bark of all the species contains tannin,
but other principles vary. The root of fever tree, X. capense,
is said to yield a resin and bitter, and the seed an alkaloidal
pungent principle like piperine. The leaves of X. macrophyU
lum show an essential oil with menthol as a constituent, while
artar root from X. senegalense yields a bitter alkaloid, berberine,
a toxic glucoside, xanthotoxin, and a resin similar to cubebin.
Extracts of the roots of various species are used as bitter tonics,
expectorants and astringents, and the seeds as carminatives.
40
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
Lasiosiphon. Several species are toxic to cattle and are used
as arrow poisons. The tannin and essential oil reported from
one species do not explain the toxicity, but it may depend on a
toxic resin similar to that in the European drug plant Mezereum,
to which the genus is closely related.
Desmodium. The presence of tannin, the only chemical find¬
ing, does not explain the reported efficacy of several species as
expectorants, febrifuges, and antispasmodics.
Other genera in which the use of several species in different
parts of Africa suggests the presence of an active principle, but
in regard to which no chemical studies are available, include
Bulbine, Cussonia, Gladiolus, Mahernia, Oneoba, Polygala, San-
severia, and Vangueria.
It is evident from the preceding discussion and from the tables
which follow that Africa presents for the pharmacologist and
drug chemist a wide field which has been very inadequately cul¬
tivated. Very few of the Native drug plants have been intro¬
duced into Western medicine, and many are probably worthy
of extended use. At present, however, the therapeutic tendency
is toward synthetic chemical substances the supply of which is
not subject to the vicissitudes of commerce or weather, and it
does not seem likely that the drug plants of Africa will have any
increased commercial importance in the near future.
NOTE ON EXPORT OF PLANT DRUGS
FROM AFRICA
The export of plant drugs from Africa has been an impor¬
tant industry for many centuries, but the total volume of ex¬
ports is so small compared to that of plant foods and animal
products that it is neglected in the annual official reports.
These commonly lump together “drug, dye and tannin plants,”
and give only a total sum which is, of course, of no value in
this study. It is possible to obtain a fairly complete list of
plants exported for medicinal use, although quantitative data
are not often found. Most of those which are exported in suf¬
ficient quantity to warrant mention in official repK>rts are drugs
like cloves, the medicinal use of which is of secondary commer¬
cial importance. Occasionally an author will mention the
quantity of a given drug exported from a certain colony in a
given year, and such figures are included in the following table,
which lists the plants exported and the colony of origin. The
world wars have largely disrupted the normal flow of trade, and
figures have in most cases not been published in the last few
years.
The only complete and recent figures are those of the United
States Department of Commerce for drugs imported directly into
this country from Africa. These figures are given in Table 2
and, in considering them, two facts must be borne in mind.
First, that part of the crop may have been sent to England or
France and thence to this country, in which case one of these
would appear as the place of origin rather than Africa, so that
the figure given may not even represent the total import from
the colony. Second, shipments are listed according to the port
from which the ship sailed, and part of the shipment may have
been derived from a colony other than that shown in the table.
Figures for only two drugs, gum arabic and senna, are given
in a similar British publication for 1939.
[41]
PLANT DRUGS EXPORTED
( 42 ]
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[44]
Table 2
Imports into the United States from Africa
1929
1936
1940
Aloes
South Africa
62,607 lbs.
43,763 lbs.
113,342 lbs.
Buchu
(( <(
124,121 “
108,526 “
(<
British West Afr.
2,820 “
Castor oil beans
Mozambique
226,964 “
Cinnamon
British East Afr.
11,659 “
Clove oil
Madagascar
38,210 “
Derris
British East Afr.
8,664 “
Fenugreek
Morocco
912,170 “
Gum arabic
Egypt
3,000 tons
4,000 tons
6,300 tons
(C ((
Morocco
8,612 lbs.
CC (t
Nigeria
19,218 lbs.
(( (C
French West Afr.
142,036 “
(C <(
British East Afr.
1,970 “
Henbane
Egypt
64,955 “
Henna
289,077 lbs.
Hoarhound
Algeria, Tunisia
25,986 “
Licorice
Egypt
324 tons
Myrrh
British East Afr.
44,128 “
Origanum oil
Morocco
3,845 “
Orris root
7,000 “
Patchouli
British East Afr.
28,648 “
Pyrcthrum
(( (( ((
764 tons
472 tons
Rosemary oil
Morocco
24,119 lbs.
Sandalwood
British East Afr.
4,480 lbs.
Senna
Egypt
500 tons
200 tons
260 tons
Sesame
(t
8 “
Stramonium
Algeria, Tunisia
4,844 lbs.
Table 3
Imports into England from Africa
Gum arabic
Senna
((
Egypt
<c
A.E. Sudan
1939
7,400 tons
767 “
230 “
[ 45 ]
[46]
(List of synonyms, cotUitmed)
[ 47 ]
(List of synonyms, Continued)
[ 48 ]
Definitions of Medical Terms Used in Tables 4-15
Alterative
Improving general nutrition
Anodyne
Relieving pain
Anthelmintic
Expelling intestinal worms
Antiparasitic
Destroying mites and lice, etc.
Antiperiodic
Curing malaria
Antispasmodic
Relieving motor restlessness
Aphrodisiac
Sexual stimulant
Astringent
Precipitating proteins, constricting bloodvessels
Carminative
Relieving colicky pain
Cathartic
Causing bowel movement
Cholagogue
Increasing flow of bile
Condiment
Aiding digestion. Flavor
Counterirritant
Applied locally for pain
Demulcent
Topically soothing
Diuretic
Increasing flow of urine
Emetic
Causing vomiting
Emmenagogue
Regulating menses
Emollient
Topically soothing
Expectorant
Softening respiratory mucus
Febrifuge
Reducing fever
Galactagogue
Increasing flow of milk
Insecticide
Destroying noxious insects
Intoxicant
Causing mental exhilaration
Laxative
Mildly cathartic
Narcotic
Causing mental stupor
Purgative
Strongly cathartic
Rubefacient
Topically irritating
Sedative
Quieting nervousness
Sternutatory
Causing sneezing
Stomachic
Stimulating stomach
Sudorific
Causing sweating
Tonic
Improving general nutrition
Vermifuge
Expelling intestinal worms
Vesicant
Raising blisters
[ 49 ]
CHEMICAL BASIS OF DRUG ACTION
Tablb 4
Uses op Drug Plants Containino Tannins
[ 60 ]
’Rubus
Table 4 —Continued
[ 51 ]
Uses of Drug Plants Containing Saponins
[ 52 ]
s 2
IIS’
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illl
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[ 63 ]
lussaenc
'oddalia
Table 7 —Continued
[ 54 ]
Xylopia
Uses op Drug Plants Containing Alkaloids
[ 55 ]
Lthoxylum
[56]
Table 9
Uses of Drug Plants Containing E^ntial Oils
[57]
Xanthoxylum
[58]
Plants Containing Resins
[ 59 ]
ithoxylum
[ 60 ]
Xylopia Xanthoxylum
UTIUZATION OF PLANT DRUGS
Key to Abbreviations
In order to make the following tables more compact, certain abbreviations
have been used, some of which require explanation. The abbreviations are
included under the headings, Region, Part, Principle, and are used in the
following way:
Region, The region of Africa in which the plant is used.
NA. North Africa. Mediterranean Coast from Morocco to Eg^pt. Some¬
times including the northern part of the desert.
WA. West Africa. Colonies from Senegal to Cameroon. Sometimes in¬
cluding parts of Congo and northern Angola.
CA. Central Africa. The center of the continent from Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan to Northern Rhodesia.
EA. Eastern Africa. The cast coast colonies from Uganda and Kenya to
Mozambique. Sometimes including Ethiopia.
SA. British South Africa, including South West Africa, Southern Rhodesia
and southern Mozambique.
A. A large part of the continent of Africa.
Ab. Abyssinia.
Eg. Egypt.
M. Madagascar.
Part. The part of the plant used in preparing the drug.
The only one needing explanation is “root,” which is used in the popular
sense of underground part, including such underground stems as bulbs and
rhizomes.
Bk. Bark
Ex. Exudate. Latex flowing spontaneously from cuts
FI. Flower or bud
Fr. Fruit
Lf. Leaf
Lx. Latex obtained by expression
PI. Entire plant
Rt. Root
Sd. Seed
Wd. Wood
Principles. The type of active principle is indicated by a single letter, as follows.
These arc explained in Chapter 11.
A. Alkaloid
B. Bitter principle
C. Cardiac glucoside
D. Dye stuff
£. Essential oil
F. Fixed oil
G. Glucoside
H. Hydrocyanic acid
L. Phloroglucin glucoside
M. Mucilage or Gum
MR. Gum resin
O. Sulphur oils
P. Protein^. Toxalbumins
Q. Cathartic Anthraquinones
R. Resins
S. Saponins
T. Tannins
X. Unclassified principles
[ 61 ]
Drug Plants Having Other Ck>MM£RciAL Uses
[ 62 ]
Table 11 —Continued
[ 68 ]
Henna
Mangifera indica TA Bk T Astringent
Mango Lf R Skin lesions
Table 11 —Continued
be be
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[64]
Table 11 —Continued
Region Part Principle
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[65]
Drug Plants Cultivated in Africa
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[ 66 ]
ilendula officinalis NA FI B. Calendulin Febrifuge
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Table 12 —Continued
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[ 67 ]
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Table 12 —Continued
[ 68 ]
Mgella saliva NA Sd A. NigeUine
Table 12 —Continued
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Table 13 —Continued
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[ 72 ]
Table 13 —Continued
[ 78 ]
Table \‘h—Continued
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[ 74 ]
Table 14
Native Drug Plants of Probable Value
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[ 81 ]
Table 14 —Continued
Region Part ' Principle Medical Indications
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[ 82 ]
Table 14 —Continued
Region Part Principle Medical Indications
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[ 84 ]
Table 14 — Continued
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[ 89 ]
Table 14 —Continued
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[92]
Table 14 —Continued
Pfxrt Principle Medical Indications
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Table 14 —Continued
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Table 14—Continued
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Table 14 —Continued
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Table 14 —Continued
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[ 108 ]
Table 14 —Continued
Region Part Principle Medical Indications
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(109]
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[ 116 ]
Table 15 —Continued
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[117]
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Table 15 —Continued
Region Part Principle Medical Indications
[£ ci U UQjSliOJaiQ
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[ 122 ]
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
General
1. Bocquillon-Limousin, H. Manuel des Plantes Medicinales Coloniales et
Exotiques, Paris, 1905.
2. Goldfiem, A. S. and J. S. de. Phytoth^rapie Coloniale, Rev. de Med. et
d*Hyg. Tropicales, XXIX (1938) 230, 258. 297; XXX (1938) 42, 172, 233.
3. Goldfiem, A. S. de. F<^brifuges d’Afrique, Presse Med., XLIX (1936) 1285.
4. Goldfiem, A. S. de. Cholagogues d'Afrique, Presse Med., XLIV (1936)
1906.
5. Lanessan, J. L. de. Plantes Utiles des Colonies Frangaises, Paris, 1886.
6. Lewin, L. Die Pfeilgijte, Leipzig, 1923.
7. Rochebrune, A. T. de. Toxicologic Africaine, Paris, 1897.
8. Wildeman, E. de. Plantes contre la L6pre, Inst. Roy. Colon. Belg. Sect.
Sci. Nat. et Med., Mem. 5. Fasc. 3 (1937).
9. Wood, G. B. and Bache, F. Dispensatory of the U. S. A., 17th Ed., Phila¬
delphia, 1894.
North Africa
10. Les Cultures Indust, et les Plantes Mddicinales en Algerie, Alger, 1922.
11. Falck, Felix. Guide Economique d*Algirie, Paris, 1922.
12. Hilton-Simpson, M. W. Arab Medicine and Surgery, London, 1922.
Anglo-Egvi’tian Sudan
13. Anderson, R. G. Medical Practices and Superstitions among the People
of Kordofan, Wellcome Research Labs. 3rd Report, Khartoum, 1908,
281.
14. Bousfeld, L. Native Methods of Treatment in Kassala, Same, 270.
15. Slatin, R. von. Notes on Bousfeld’s above paper, Satrie, 277.
16. Halim, A. A. Native Medicines and Ways of Treatment in the Northern
Sudan, Sudan Notes and Records, XXII (1939) 27.
17. Zeki, H. E. Healing Art as practised by Dervishes in Sudan, Wellcome
Research Labs. 3rd Report, Khartoum, 1908.
West Africa
18. Dalziel, J. M. The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa, London, 1937.
19. Foa, Ed. Le Dahomey (p. 72), Paris, 1895.
20. Harley, G. W. Native African Medicine (Manos of Liberia), Cambridge,
1941.
21. Holland, J. H. Useful Plants of Nigeria, Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew, Add. Ser.
No. 9, London, 1922.
22. Lasnet, Chevalier, Cligny, Rambaud. Une Mission au SSndgal, Paris,
1900.
Chevalier, A. Giographie Botanique du Sin^gal et Soudan, p. 197.
Chevalier, A. Plantes Midicinales du Soudan Frangais, p. 253.
Lasnet, A. Plantes Medicinales du Senegal, p. 265.
23. Pobeguin, H. Les Plantes Medicinales de la Guinee, Paris, 1912.
123
124
DRUG PLANTS OF AFRICA
24. Santesson, C. G. Einige Drogen aus dem Kamerun Gebiete, Archiv fUr
Botanik, 20A, No. 8, 1926.
25. Sebire, R. P. A. Les Plantes Utiles du Sinigal, Paris, 1899.
Belgian Congo. French Congo
26. Duvigneau, A. Guide Midicale au Congo, Paris, 1900.
27. Staner, P. and Boutique, R. Plantes M^dicinales Indigene du Congo
Beige, Inst. Roy. Colon. Belg. Sect, de Sci. Nat. et Med., Mem. 5, Fasc.
6, 1937.
28. Wildeman, E. de. Medicaments Indigenes Congolaises, Same, Mem. 3,
Fasc. 3, 1935.
29. Wildeman, E. de. Sur les Plantes Medicinales de Mayombe (Congo
Beige), Same, Mem. 6, Fasc. 4, 1938.
30. Wildeman, E. de. Plantes Utiles ou Interessantes de la Flore du Congo,
Bruxelles, 1903.
East Africa. Madagascar
31. Almeida, A. G. de. Plantas Venenosas e Medicinas dos indigenes de
Mocambique, Boletin Agricola e Pecuario. Reparcio do Agricoltura
de Mocambique, I (1930) 109.
32- Bally, P. R. O. Native Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of East Africa,
Roy. Bot. Gardens Kew, Bull. Misc. Inf., Fasc. 1 (1937) 10.
33. Chiovenda, E. Flora Somali (Useful plants, p. 68), Rome, 1929.
34. Fitxgerald, W. W. A. Travels in Br. E. Afr. and the Islands of Zanzibar
and Pemba (Zanzibar spice industry), London, 1898.
35. Heckel, E. Plantes M^dicinales et Toxiques de Madagascar, Ann. de
VInst. Botanico-Geologique de Marseille, I (1903) 59.
36. Pax, F. Die Medizinal Pflanzen Ost Afrikas, Engler, Die Pflanzenwelt
Ost Afrikas, Sec. 16, Berlin, 1895.
37. Raymond, W. D. Native Poisons and Medicines of Tanganyika, Jour.
Trop. Med. and Hyg., XLII (1939) 295.
38. Raymond, W. D. Native Materia Medica. I. Arrow Poisons, Tangan-
yika Notes and Records, I (1936) 77.
39. Raymond, W. D, Native Materia Medica. II. Medicaments, Tanganyika
Notes and Records, II (1936) 50.
40. Raymond, W. D. Native Materia Medica. III. Deliriants, Tanganyika
Notes and Records, V (1938) 72.
South Africa
41. Bryant, A. T. Zulu Medicine and Medicine Men, Ann. Natal Mus., II
(1909) 1.
42. Juritz, C. F. South African Plant Poisons, S. Afr. Jour. Sci., XI (1915)
109.
43. Marais, J. S. C. Isolation of Potassium cymonate from Dichapetalum
cymosum, Ondersteport Jour. Vet. Sci. and Animal Ind., XVIII (1945)
203; XX (1944) 67.
44. Mayr, Fr. Zulu Kaffirs of Natal. Medicines and Charms, Anthropos, II
(1907) 392.
45. Mildbraed, J. Von den Bulus genutzte wildwachsende Pflanzen, Noth-
blatt d. Konig. Gart. und Mus. zu Berlin, App. 27 (1912) 136.
46. Schapera, I. Bushman Arrow Poisons, Bantu Studies, II (1926) 199.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
125
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